Multifunctional superhydrophobic particles for chemical adhesion and blooming

ABSTRACT

Provided herein is a multifunctional particle and methods of forming the same. The multifunctional particle includes a surface of the particle; a first moiety coupled to the surface and having at least one substantially hydrophobic appendage; and a second moiety coupled to the surface and having at least one appendage comprising a reactive functional group and a substantially hydrophilic repeating unit, whereby the particle is substantially superhydrophobic as a result of the substantially hydrophobic appendage, chemically reactive as a result of the reactive functional group, and migratory to a surface of a substantially hydrophobic matrix in which the particle may be included as a result of the substantially hydrophilic repeating unit. Additionally, antimicrobial functional groups may be coupled to the surface.

BACKGROUND

Particles such as diatomaceous earth nanoparticles (DE) may befunctionalized with fluorocarbons or saturated hydrocarbons to becomesuperhydrophobic, but these particles have been incapable of chemicallybonding to anything due to the highly unreactive self-assembledmonolayer (SAM) of the fluorocarbons or saturated hydrocarbons. Currentcoating technologies generally incorporate fluorinated diatomaceousearth (FDE) into polymer solutions. The particles are held in bymechanical forces and can easily be rubbed out of the surface, resultingin a surface that does not have a durable superhydrophobiccharacteristic. The polymer surface is typically highly porous and veryrough. Further, generation of these polymer surfaces is inefficientbecause the particles are embedded in the polymer and not at the surfaceto provide superhydrophobic characteristics.

SUMMARY

The following presents a simplified summary of one or more embodimentsin order to provide a basic understanding of such embodiments. Thissummary is not an extensive overview of all contemplated embodiments,and is intended to neither identify key or critical elements of allembodiments, nor delineate the scope of any or all embodiments. Its solepurpose is to present some concepts of one or more embodiments in asimplified form as a prelude to the more detailed description that ispresented later.

In one embodiment, a multifunctional particle is provided. In anembodiment, the multifunctional includes a surface of the particle; afirst moiety coupled to the surface and having at least onesubstantially hydrophobic appendage; and a second moiety coupled to thesurface and having at least one appendage comprising a reactivefunctional group and a substantially hydrophilic repeating unit, wherebythe particle is superhydrophobic as a result of the substantiallyhydrophobic appendage, chemically reactive as a result of the reactivefunctional group, and migratory to a surface of a hydrophobic matrix inwhich the particle is included as a result of the substantiallyhydrophilic repeating unit.

In an aspect of any embodiment disclosed herein, the particle is aSiO₂-containing particle selected from the group consisting ofdiatomaceous earth, fumed silica, fused silica, and rice husk ash.

In some embodiments, the particle is selected from the group consistingof quartz, glass, aluminum, aluminum oxide, zirconium oxide,alumino-silicate, copper, tin, talc, an inorganic oxide, steel, ironasbestos, nickel, zinc, zinc oxide, and lead.

In a further aspect of the first embodiment, alone or in combinationwith any of the previous aspects of the first embodiment, the firstmoiety further comprises an anti-microbial functional group.

In a further aspect of the first embodiment, alone or in combinationwith any of the previous aspects of the first embodiment, the particlefurther comprises a third moiety coupled to the surface and having atleast one appendage comprising an anti-microbial functional group.

In a further aspect of the first embodiment, alone or in combinationwith any of the previous aspects of the first embodiment, the firstmoiety is a reaction product of the particle with 3-trimethoxy silylpropyl dimethyl octadecyl ammonium chloride.

In a further aspect of the first embodiment, alone or in combinationwith any of the previous aspects of the first embodiment, thehydrophilic repeating unit comprises a functional group selected fromthe group consisting of oxyethylene and polyethylene glycol.

In a further aspect of the first embodiment, alone or in combinationwith any of the previous aspects of the first embodiment, thehydrophilic repeating unit is positioned between the reactive functionalgroup and the particle.

In a further aspect of the first embodiment, alone or in combinationwith any of the previous aspects of the first embodiment, the secondmoiety is a reaction product of the particle with a member selected fromthe group consisting of amino-functional hydrocarbon silanes,N-(6-aminohexyl)-3-aminopropyltrimethoxysilane,aminohexylaminoethyltrimethoxysilane, aminopropyltrimethoxysilane,aminopropyltriethoxysilane,N-(2-Aminoethyl)-3-aminopropyl-trimethoxysilane,methyacryloxypropyl-trimethoxysilane, and combinations thereof.

In a further aspect of the first embodiment, alone or in combinationwith any of the previous aspects of the first embodiment, the secondmoiety comprises amine silanes, olefin silanes, anhydride silanes, epoxysilanes, halogen silanes, hydroxyl silanes, dipodal silanes, acrylatesilanes, sulfur-containing silanes, water based silanes, isocyanatesilanes, or azide silanes.

In a further aspect of the first embodiment, alone or in combinationwith any of the previous aspects of the first embodiment, the firstmoiety comprises a reaction product of the particle with a molecule ofthe structure:

X_(y)(CH₃)_((3-y))SiLR

-   -   where y is 1 to 3;    -   X is —Cl, —Br, —I, —H, HO—, R′HN—, R′₂N—, imidizolo,        R′C(O)N(H)—, R′C(O)N(R″)—, R′O—, F₃CC(O)N(H)—, F₃CC(O)N(CH₃)—,        or F₃S(O)₂O—, where R′ is a straight or branched chain        hydrocarbon of 1 to 4 carbons and R″ is methyl or ethyl;    -   L, a linking group, is —CH₂CH₂, —CH₂CH₂CH₂, —CH₂CH₂O,        —CH₂CH₂CH₂O, —CH₂CH₂C(O), —CH₂CH₂CH₂C(O), —CH₂CH₂OCH₂,        —CH₂CH₂CH₂OCH₂; and        R is —(CF₂)nCF₃ or —(CF(CF₃)OCF₂)nCF₂CF₃, where n is 0 to 24.

In a further aspect of the first embodiment, alone or in combinationwith any of the previous aspects of the first embodiment, the firstmoiety comprises a reaction product of the particle with1H,1H,2H,2H-perfluorooctyltrichlorosilane.

In a further aspect of the first embodiment, alone or in combinationwith any of the previous aspects of the first embodiment, the secondmoiety a reaction product of the particle withN-3-[(amino(polypropylenoxy)]aminopropyltrimethoxysilane.

In a second embodiment, a second particle is provided. In someembodiments, the particle includes a surface of the particle; a firstmoiety coupled to the surface and having at least one substantiallyhydrophobic appendage and an anti-microbial functional group; and asecond moiety coupled to the surface and having at least one appendagecomprising a reactive functional group, whereby the particle issubstantially superhydrophobic as a result of the substantiallyhydrophobic appendage, chemically reactive as a result of the reactivefunctional group, and anti-microbial as a result of the anti-microbialfunctional group.

In an aspect of the second embodiment, the particle includes a thirdmoiety coupled to the surface and having at least one appendagecomprising a substantially hydrophilic repeating unit.

In an aspect of the second embodiment, alone or in combination with anyof the previous aspects of the second embodiment, the first moiety is areaction product of the particle with 3-trimethoxy silyl propyl dimethyloctadecyl ammonium chloride.

In an aspect of the second embodiment, alone or in combination with anyof the previous aspects of the second embodiment, the second moietycomprises a substantially hydrophilic repeating unit positioned betweenthe reactive functional group and the particle.

In an aspect of the second embodiment, alone or in combination with anyof the previous aspects of the second embodiment, the hydrophilicrepeating unit comprises a functional group selected from the groupconsisting of oxyethylene and polyethylene glycol.

In an aspect of the second embodiment, alone or in combination with anyof the previous aspects of the second embodiment, the second moiety is areaction product with the particle of a member selected from the groupconsisting of amino-functional hydrocarbon silanes,N-(6-aminohexyl)-3-aminopropyltrimethoxysilane,aminohexylaminoethyltrimethoxysilane, aminopropyltrimethoxysilane,aminopropyltriethoxysilane,N-(2-Aminoethyl)-3-aminopropyl-trimethoxysilane,methyacryloxypropyl-trimethoxysilane, and combinations thereof.

In an aspect of the second embodiment, alone or in combination with anyof the previous aspects of the second embodiment, the second moietycomprises amine silanes, olefin silanes, anhydride silanes, epoxysilanes, halogen silanes, hydroxyl silanes, dipodal silanes, acrylatesilanes, sulfur-containing silanes, water based silanes, isocyanatesilanes, or azide silanes.

In a third embodiment, a third multifunctional particle is provided. Insome embodiments, the third multifunctional particle includes a surfaceof the particle; a first moiety coupled to the surface and having atleast one substantially hydrophobic appendage; a second moiety coupledto the surface and having at least one appendage comprising a reactivefunctional group; and a third moiety coupled to the surface and havingat least one appendage comprising a substantially hydrophilic repeatingunit; whereby the particle is substantially superhydrophobic as a resultof the substantially hydrophobic appendage, chemically reactive as aresult of the reactive functional group, and migratory to a surface of ahydrophobic matrix in which the particle is included as a result of thesubstantially hydrophilic repeating unit.

In an aspect of the third embodiment, the first moiety comprises ananti-microbial functional group. In an aspect of the third embodiment,alone or in combination with any of the previous aspects of the thirdembodiment, the first moiety is a reaction product of the particle with3-trimethoxy silyl propyl dimethyl octadecyl ammonium chloride.

In an aspect of the third embodiment, alone or in combination with anyof the previous aspects of the third embodiment, the substantiallyhydrophilic repeating unit comprises a functional group selected fromthe group consisting of oxyethylene and polyethylene glycol.

In an aspect of the third embodiment, alone or in combination with anyof the previous aspects of the third embodiment, the second moiety is areaction product of the particle with a member selected from the groupconsisting of amino-functional hydrocarbon silanes,N-(6-aminohexyl)-3-aminopropyltrimethoxysilane,aminohexylaminoethyltrimethoxysilane, aminopropyltrimethoxysilane,aminopropyltriethoxysilane,N-(2-Aminoethyl)-3-aminopropyl-trimethoxysilane,methyacryloxypropyl-trimethoxysilane, and combinations thereof.

In an aspect of the third embodiment, alone or in combination with anyof the previous aspects of the third embodiment, the second moietycomprises amine silanes, olefin silanes, anhydride silanes, epoxysilanes, halogen silanes, hydroxyl silanes, dipodal silanes, acrylatesilanes, sulfur-containing silanes, water based silanes, isocyanatesilanes, or azide silanes.

In an aspect of the third embodiment, alone or in combination with anyof the previous aspects of the third embodiment, the first moietycomprises a molecule of the structure:

X_(y)(CH₃)_((3-y))SiLR

-   -   where y is 1 to 3;    -   X is —Cl, —Br, —I, —H, HO—, R′HN—, R′₂N—, imidizolo,        R′C(O)N(H)—, R′C(O)N(R″)—, R′O—, F₃CC(O)N(H)—, F₃CC(O)N(CH₃)—,        or F₃S(O)₂O—, where R′ is a straight or branched chain        hydrocarbon of 1 to 4 carbons and R″ is methyl or ethyl;    -   L, a linking group, is —CH₂CH₂, —CH₂CH₂CH₂, —CH₂CH₂O,        —CH₂CH₂CH₂O, —CH₂CH₂C(O), —CH₂CH₂CH₂C(O), —CH₂CH₂OCH₂,        —CH₂CH₂CH₂OCH₂; and    -   R is —(CF₂)nCF₃ or —(CF(CF₃)OCF₂)nCF₂CF₃, where n is 0 to 24.

In an aspect of the third embodiment, alone or in combination with anyof the previous aspects of the third embodiment, the first moiety is areaction product of the particle with1H,1H,2H,2H-perfluorooctyltrichlorosilane.

In a fourth embodiment, a method for producing a particle is provided.In some embodiments, the method includes contacting a first moietyhaving at least one substantially hydrophobic appendage to a surface ofa particle; and contacting a second moiety having at least one appendagecomprising a reactive functional group and a substantially hydrophilicrepeating unit to the surface, whereby the particle is substantiallysuperhydrophobic as a result of the substantially hydrophobic appendage,chemically reactive as a result of the reactive functional group, andmigratory to a surface of a hydrophobic matrix in which the particle maybe included as a result of the substantially hydrophilic repeating unit.

In an aspect of the fourth embodiment, the method further includesrinsing the particle with a solvent to remove impurities.

In an aspect of the fourth embodiment, alone or in combination with anyof the previous aspects of the fourth embodiment, the method includesrinsing the particle with a solvent to expose SiOH groups on thesurface; and reacting the first moiety and the second moiety with theexposed SiOH groups.

In an aspect of the fourth embodiment, alone or in combination with anyof the previous aspects of the fourth embodiment, the method includesproviding a plurality of particles coupled to the first moiety and thesecond moiety; and generating a self-assembled monolayer from theplurality of particles.

In a fifth embodiment, a second method for producing a particle isprovided. In some embodiments, the second method includes contacting afirst moiety having at least one substantially hydrophobic appendage andan anti-microbial functional group with a particle having a surface; andcontacting a second moiety having at least one appendage comprising areactive functional group with the surface, whereby the particle issubstantially superhydrophobic as a result of the hydrophobic appendage,chemically reactive as a result of the reactive functional group, andanti-microbial as a result of the anti-microbial functional group.

In an aspect of the fifth embodiment, the second method includes rinsingthe particle with a solvent to remove impurities.

In an aspect of the fifth embodiment, alone or in combination with anyof the previous aspects of the fifth embodiment, the second methodincludes rinsing the particle with a solvent to expose SiOH groups onthe surface; wherein the first moiety and the second moiety react withSiOH groups.

In an aspect of the fifth embodiment, alone or in combination with anyof the previous aspects of the fifth embodiment, the second methodincludes isolating a plurality of particles coupled to the firstmoieties and the second moieties; and generating a self-assembledmonolayer from the plurality of particles.

In a sixth embodiment, a third method for producing a particle isprovided. In some embodiments, the third method includes contacting afirst moiety having at least one substantially hydrophobic appendagewith a particle having a surface; contacting a second moiety having atleast one appendage comprising a reactive functional group with thesurface; and contacting a third moiety having at least one appendagecomprising a substantially hydrophilic repeating unit with the surface;whereby the particle is substantially superhydrophobic as a result ofthe substantially hydrophobic appendage, chemically reactive as a resultof the reactive functional group, and migratory to a surface of ahydrophobic matrix in which the particle is included as a result of thesubstantially hydrophilic repeating unit.

In an aspect of the sixth embodiment, the third method includes rinsingthe particle with a solvent to remove impurities.

In an aspect of the sixth embodiment, alone or in combination with anyof the previous aspects of the sixth embodiment, the third methodincludes rinsing the particle with a solvent to expose SiOH groups onthe surface; and reacting the first moiety and the second moiety reactwith the exposed SiOH groups.

In an aspect of the sixth embodiment, alone or in combination with anyof the previous aspects of the sixth embodiment, the third methodincludes isolating a plurality of particles coupled to first moietiesand second moieties; and generating a self-assembled monolayer from theplurality of particles.

In a seventh embodiment, a composition is provided. In some embodiments,the composition includes a plurality of multifunctional particlescomprising: at least one first moiety coupled to a surface of a particleand having at least one substantially hydrophobic appendage; and atleast one second moiety coupled to the surface and having at least oneappendage comprising a reactive functional group and a substantiallyhydrophilic repeating unit, whereby the multifunctional particle issubstantially superhydrophobic as a result of the substantiallyhydrophobic appendage, chemically reactive as a result of the reactivefunctional group, and migratory to a surface of a substantiallyhydrophobic polymer in which the particle may be included as a result ofthe substantially hydrophilic repeating unit; and a substantiallyhydrophobic polymer associated with the plurality of multifunctionalparticles.

In an aspect of the seventh embodiment, the polymer is selected fromthermosets, acrylates, methacrylates, polyesters, urethanes, epoxies,phenolics, thermoplastics, polydienes, polyvinyl chloride, polyphenylenesulfide, acrylics, maleic anhydride, vinyl acetate, diene-containingcopolymers, halogen-modified homopolymers, chlorosulfonyl-modifiedhomopolymers, polyamides, polyesters, polycarbonates, polysulfones,olefins, and combinations thereof.

In an aspect of the seventh embodiment, alone or in combination with anyof the previous aspects of the seventh embodiment, the polymer ispolymerized or the polymer comprises at least two precursor componentscopolymerized with the multifunctional particles.

In an aspect of the seventh embodiment, alone or in combination with anyof the previous aspects of the seventh embodiment, at least a portion ofthe multifunctional particle is presented on an exterior of an articleformed of the hydrophobic polymer and the plurality of multifunctionalparticles.

In an eighth embodiment, a second composition is provided. In someembodiments, the second composition includes a plurality ofmultifunctional particles, wherein each multifunctional particlecomprises: at least one first moiety coupled to a surface of a particleand having at least one substantially hydrophobic appendage; at leastone second moiety coupled to the surface and having at least oneappendage comprising a reactive functional group; and at least one thirdmoiety coupled to the surface and having at least one appendagecomprising a substantially hydrophilic repeating unit; whereby themultifunctional particle is substantially superhydrophobic as a resultof the substantially hydrophobic appendage, chemically reactive as aresult of the reactive functional group, and migratory to a surface of asubstantially hydrophobic polymer in which the particle may be includedas a result of the substantially hydrophilic repeating unit; and asubstantially hydrophobic polymer associated with the plurality ofmultifunctional particles.

In an aspect of the eighth embodiment, the polymer is selected fromthermosets, acrylates, methacrylates, polyesters, urethanes, epoxies,phenolics, thermoplastics, polydienes, polyvinyl chloride, polyphenylenesulfide, acrylics, maleic anhydride, vinyl acetate, diene-containingcopolymers, halogen-modified homopolymers, chlorosulfonyl-modifiedhomopolymers, polyamides, polyesters, polycarbonates, polysulfones,olefins, and combinations thereof.

In an aspect of the eighth embodiment, alone or in combination with anyof the previous aspects of the eighth embodiment, the polymer ispolymerized or the polymer comprises at least two precursor componentscopolymerized with the multifunctional particles.

In an aspect of the eighth embodiment, alone or in combination with anyof the previous aspects of the eighth embodiment, at least a portion ofthe multifunctional particle is presented on an exterior of an articleformed of the hydrophobic polymer and the plurality of multifunctionalparticles.

Other aspects and features, as recited by the claims, will becomeapparent to those skilled in the art upon review of the followingnon-limited detailed description in conjunction with the accompanyingfigures.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

Having thus described embodiments of the invention in general terms,reference will now be made to the accompanying drawings, which are notnecessarily drawn to scale, and wherein:

FIG. 1A illustrates a multifunctional particle in accordance withvarious embodiments of the disclosure;

FIG. 1B illustrates a multifunctional particle having both blooming andoptional anti-microbial moieties in accordance with various embodimentsof the disclosure;

FIG. 2 illustrates functionalized diatomaceous earth particles treatedwith ninhydrin in accordance with various embodiments;

FIG. 3 illustrates a scanned image of a Scanning Electron Microscopy(SEM) image of an epoxy coating with multifunctional particles inaccordance with various embodiments;

FIG. 4 illustrates a scanned image of a Scanning Electron Microscopy(SEM) image of an epoxy coating with fluorinated diatomaceous earthparticles in accordance with various embodiments;

FIG. 5 illustrates an image of (A) a sample of wallboard having asuperhydrophobic epoxy coating applied thereto and (B) a sample ofwallboard having a polyvinyl chloride coating applied thereto inaccordance with various embodiments;

FIG. 6 illustrates an image of a water drop contact angle forcharacterizing the hydrophobicity of a surface in accordance withvarious embodiments;

FIG. 7 illustrates an image of a water drop contact angle forcharacterizing the hydrophobicity of a surface in accordance withvarious embodiments;

FIG. 8 illustrates an image of a water drop contact angle forcharacterizing the hydrophobicity of a surface in accordance withvarious embodiments;

FIG. 9 illustrates an image of a water drop contact angle forcharacterizing the hydrophobicity of a surface in accordance withvarious embodiments;

FIG. 10 illustrates an image of a water drop contact angle forcharacterizing the hydrophobicity of a surface in accordance withvarious embodiments;

FIG. 11 illustrates an image of a water drop contact angle forcharacterizing the hydrophobicity of a surface in accordance withvarious embodiments;

FIG. 12 illustrates a SEM image of asphalt with diatomaceous earthparticles in accordance with various embodiments;

FIG. 13 illustrates a SEM image of an epoxy coating with diatomaceousearth particles in accordance with various embodiments;

FIG. 14 illustrates a SEM image of unmodified asphalt in accordance withvarious embodiments; and

FIG. 15 illustrates a chart of water contact angle of fluoro-amineparticles in epoxy powder coat as a function of amino silane moleculepercentage on the particle.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION

Embodiments of the present disclosure will now be described more fullyhereinafter with reference to the accompanying drawings, in which some,but not all, embodiments are shown. Indeed, the disclosure may beembodied in many different forms and should not be construed as limitedto the embodiments set forth herein; rather, these embodiments areprovided so that this disclosure will satisfy applicable legalrequirements. Additionally, while embodiments are disclosed as“comprising” elements, it should be understood that the embodiments mayalso “consist of” elements or “consist essentially of” elements. Wherepossible, any terms expressed in the singular form herein are meant toalso include the plural form and vice versa unless explicitly statedotherwise. Also, as used herein, the term “a” and/or “an” shall mean“one or more,” even though the phrase “one or more” is also used herein.Like numbers refer to like elements throughout.

The multifunctional particles disclosed herein are configured tomaintain superhydrophobicity but have functional groups available forchemical reactions, and such particles provide for migration or bloomingto the surface of a matrix, e.g., polymers, to increasesuperhydrophobicity of the matrix surface. In some embodiments, themultifunctional particle also enhances adhesion of the silica particleto polymers and other materials. The multifunctional particle is capableof forming durable bonds, such as covalent bonds, between organic andinorganic materials. The multifunctional particle is further capable ofreacting with a substrate and presenting an increased number of siteswith reactivity specific for and accessible to the matrix phase.

The embodiments of the disclosure presented herein are directed toparticles with multifunctionality. The multifunctional particles aresuperhydrophobic, chemically reactive, and migrate or bloom to thesurface of hydrophobic matrices such as polymers in which they may beincluded. The multifunctional particle includes a surface and one ormore moieties associated therewith that provide functionalcharacteristics to the multifunctional particle. In an embodiment, themultifunctional particle includes a surface, a hydrophobic moiety, areactive moiety, a migratory or blooming moiety, and/or ananti-microbial moiety. In some embodiments, a single moiety providesmultiple functional characteristics. For example, a single moiety may beboth hydrophobic and anti-microbial. Similarly, a single moiety may beboth reactive and migratory, e.g., capable of blooming.

The multifunctional superhydrophobic nanoparticles have beendemonstrated herein through reaction-based color change ofmultifunctional particles that maintain their superhydrophobicity whencoupled to a polymer. The structure of the multifunctional particle canalso be modified with hydrophilic moieties to increase migration of thecompound to the surface of polymers. In further embodiments, ahydrophobic moiety, a reactive moiety, and/or a hydrophilic or bloomingmoiety are coupled to the surface of the particle and form a continuous,functional SAM (self-assembled monolayer) on the substrate.

Multifunctional Particle

The multifunctional particle includes a surface that has one or morereactive groups, such as hydroxyl, thiol, or amine. A first moiety iscoupled to the surface and has at least one substantially hydrophobicappendage. A second moiety is coupled to the surface and has at leastone appendage comprising a reactive functional group and a substantiallyhydrophilic repeating unit. In this configuration, the particle issubstantially superhydrophobic as a result of the hydrophobic appendage,chemically reactive as a result of the reactive functional group, andcapable of migrating to a surface of a hydrophobic matrix in which theparticle may be included as a result of the hydrophilic repeating unit.In some embodiments, at least one of the moieties includes ananti-microbial functional group. In a further embodiment, the particleincludes a third moiety coupled to the surface and having a hydrophilicfunctional group in addition to or different from the hydrophilicrepeating unit in the second moiety.

Hydrophobic surfaces bind very weakly with water, which makes drops ofwater form beads on the surface. A hydrophobic surface is generallydefined and is defined herein as that which has a contact angle greaterthan 90° with a drop of water. A super-hydrophobic surface is definedherein as that which has a contact angle greater than 150° with a dropof water at normal ambient temperatures (about 25° C.).

Although the multifunctional particles are generally described in termsof superhydrophobicity, chemical reactivity, anti-microbial activity,and blooming functionality, it will be understood that any number ofother properties or functionalities may also be attributable to themultifunctional particles. For example, other functionalities mayinclude use as indicator compounds, and to provide corrosion resistance,insulation, and the like. Metal particles fabricated in accordance withthe methods disclosed herein can impart anti-static, thermal/electricalconductance, or electromagnetic shielding properties to matrixes devoidof such properties.

In one aspect of the present disclosure, the multifunctional particleincludes a surface to which various moieties conferring differentfunctionalities can be coupled. In an embodiment, the particle is ametal or other inorganic, such as a silica or SiO₂-containing particle.The surface of SiO₂-containing particles may include functional sites towhich moieties can couple, such as via covalent bonds, ionic bonds, orvan der Waals forces. Exemplary silica particles include diatomaceousearth particles, fumed silica, fused silica, rice husk ash particles,and the like. Other particles that can be used include nanoparticles oftransition metals. Other inorganics include nanoparticles of siliconcarbide, aluminum oxide, aluminum nitride, silicon, germanium, titaniumoxide, tin oxides, copper oxides, and the like. The particles can benanoparticles or a mixture of nanoparticles and micron sized particles.

Diatomaceous earth is a chalk-like, soft, friable, fine-grained,siliceous sedimentary rock usually light in color, although white whenpure. It is finely porous and low in density such that it floats onwater until its surface is wetted. Diatomaceous earth is chemicallyinert to most liquids and gases. It also displays low thermalconductivity and a high fusion point. The typical chemical compositionof diatomaceous earth is about 86% silica, 5% sodium, 3% magnesium, and2% iron.

In certain aspects, natural grade diatomaceous earth particles areprocessed at up to 800° C. to produce a powder. The processing ofnatural-grade diatomite consists of crushing and drying. Crude diatomitecommonly contains up to 40 percent moisture and can include more than 60percent water. Typically, a primary crushing is carried on the minedmaterial to yield a desired aggregate size of crushed diatomaceousearth. The crushed diatomaceous earth is subsequently milled and driedsimultaneously. Flash and rotary dryers are used to dry the material toa powder of approximately 15 percent moisture. Typical flash dryeroperating temperatures range from 70 to 430° C. In an embodiment, theheat treatment of the diatomaceous earth is up to 800° C. In anembodiment, the heat treatment is up to 650° C. The suspended particlesexiting the dryer pass through a series of fans, cyclones, andseparators. These sequential operations separate the powder into varioussizes, remove waste impurities, and expel the absorbed water. Thesenatural-milled diatomite products are then bagged or handled in bulkwithout additional processing.

The surface of natural grade diatomaceous earth is that of amorphoussilica, more similar in composition to that of precipitated silicarather than pyrogenic silica (fumed silica). There is a reasonably highsilanol content to the diatomaceous earth surface that can becharacterized as having strong hydrogen bonded silanols, moderatestrength hydrogen bonded silanols and weak hydrogen bonded silanols.

In certain aspects, the presence of at least some moderate strengthhydrogen bonded silanols on the diatomaceous earth particles providessufficient sites for bonding of a functional coating layer and therebystabilizes a hydrophobic self-assembly monolayer coating. Consequently,in one aspect, the present disclosure excludes diatomaceous earthnanoparticles heat-treated in excess of 800° C.

Fumed silica, also known as pyrogenic silica or fumed silicon dioxide,comprises submicron-sized spheres, which are fused into short,highly-branched chains, from 0.1 to 0.2 microns in length. Fumed silicais generated by exposing to a silicon-containing compound to a flame.For example, fumed silica can be generated by burning a mixture of afuel, such as hydrogen, a silicon compound, such as a silane or anorganosilane, and oxygen or an oxygen containing gas in a combustionchamber. The fumed silica spheres are substantially uniform in size fora given product and the chain lengths may vary from 5 to 50 units inlength. The structure of fumed silica results in a large surface arearelative to its size and includes many SiOH (silanol) groups forcoupling to alkoxysilanes, germanium alkoxy esters, alkoxyltin, sono-,di-, and tri-halogen silanes germanes. In some embodiments, fumed silicahas a surface area of 50-600 m²/g. Tin and titanates etc. can also beused (hereinafter collectively referred to as alkoxysilanes as anexemplary embodiment). The structure of fumed silica is amorphous andincludes a number of hydroxyl groups per square millimicron of silicasurface (e.g., 3-5 hydroxyl groups/square millimicron of silicasurface).

Fused silica, also known as fused quartz, is a noncrystalline (glass)form of silicon dioxide. Fused silica is manufactured by flamehydrolysis or by melting silica oxide and cooling the resulting liquidto a solid having its own unique properties. Fused silica is anon-combustible, non-reactive solid material produced by carbon arc,plasma arc, gas fired continual extrusion, or carbon electrode fusion.Hydroxyl groups are present in fused silica, but typically at a lowerrate than fumed silica.

Rice husk ash particles are the result of combustion of rice hulls,which contain silica and other compounds for protecting the seed duringthe growing season. By burning the rice hulls, the organic material isfreed from the rice husk ash and the silica is available for use ingenerating multifunctional particles.

Diatomaceous earth, fumed silica, fused silica, and rice husk ashparticles are all SiO₂-containing particles that may be used in amultifunctional particle in accordance with the present disclosure. Allof these SiO₂-containing particles include hydroxyl groups that analkoxy silane may react or couple to in order to provide functionalityto the nanoparticle. The process by which the SiO₂-containing particlesare generated may affect the properties of the resultant particle. Forexample, the process may affect the number of hydroxyl groups orpresence of impurities in the multifunctional particle.

In an embodiment, a moiety having at least one substantially hydrophobicappendage is coupled to the surface of the SiO₂-containing particle. Forexample, the hydrophobic moiety may be covalently bonded to theSiO₂-containing particle via reaction of a functional group of thehydrophobic moiety with silanol groups about the surface of theSiO₂-containing particle. In some embodiments, the hydrophobic moiety isionically bonded to the SiO₂-containing particle. The hydrophobic moietymay also be coupled to the SiO₂-containing particle via van der Waalsforces. The hydrophobic moiety provides superhydrophobic functionalityto the multifunctional particle. In one aspect, the hydrophobic moietycomprises mono-, di-, or tri-alkoxysilane groups with at least onehydrophobic appendage for coupling with the silanols or other reactivesurface groups of the particle and providing a moiety with a hydrophobicappendage. While other moieties are feasible in carrying out the methodsdisclosed, for brevity, the use of alkoxysilane moieties are hereafterused to exemplify the concept, such hydrophobic moieties hereinafterreferred to as a “hydrophobic silane moiety.”

Exemplary hydrophobic silane moieties include a molecule of thestructure:

X_(y)(CH₃)_((3-y))SiLR

-   -   where y is 1 to 3;    -   X is —CI, —Br, —I, —H, HO—, R′HN—, R′₂N—, imidizolo,        R′C(O)N(H)—, R′C(O)N(R″)—, R′O—, F₃CC(O)N(H)—, F₃CC(O)N(CH₃)—,        or F₃S(O)₂O—, where R′ is a straight or branched chain        hydrocarbon of 1 to 4 carbons and R″ is methyl or ethyl;    -   L, a linking group, is —CH₂CH₂, —CH₂CH₂CH₂, —CH₂CH₂O,        —CH₂CH₂CH₂O, —CH₂CH₂C(O), —CH₂CH₂CH₂C(O), —CH₂CH₂OCH₂,        —CH₂CH₂CH₂OCH₂; and    -   R is —(CF₂)nCF₃ or —(CF(CF₃)OCF₂)nCF₂CF₃, where n is 0 to 24.

Exemplary hydrophobic silane moieties include fluoralkylsilanes (e.g.,1H,1H,2H,2H-perfluorooctyltrimethoxysilane) and alkylsilanes (e.g.,octadecyltrichlorosilane).

For example, the hydrophobic silane moiety may be a fluorinated silanesuch as:

In this example, the fluorinated silane is coupled to theSiO₂-containing particle via the reaction of the methoxy groups of thesilane and the silanols of the nanoparticle and results in ananoparticle compound that at a sufficient loading can provide asuperhydrophobic characteristic to a matrix, such as polymer, in whichthe nanoparticle compound is distributed, dispersed, or compounded.

In some embodiments, the hydrophobic silane moieties providefunctionality in addition to superhydrophobicity to the multifunctionalparticle. In one embodiment, the hydrophobic silane moiety is configuredto possess anti-microbial activity via one or more functional groups. Inone embodiment, the general antimicrobial agent is a quaternary ammoniumsilane (QAS), or alternatively a quaternary ammonium compound (QAC). Theterm QAC generally refers to the subgroup of linear alkyl ammoniumcompounds that are composed of a hydrophobic alkyl chain and ahydrophilic counterpart. These generally have a long hydrocarbon chain(12-18 carbon atoms). In some embodiments, a silane base bonds to asurface of a nanoparticle and above that lies a positively chargedmolecule that attracts microbes down onto a long carbon chain extendingfrom the base. The positively charged molecule may be a nitrogenmolecule. The long carbon chain physically ruptures the organism withoutleaching into the environment. The long carbon chains are arranged soclosely that microbes cannot slip between them.

In an embodiment, the positively charged molecule is a quaternaryammonium (conventionally NR₄+, where R is up to 4 different organicmolecular groups), but could be another positively charged moleculeembedded in the silane chain. For example, alternatives may includecationic surfactants, didecyl dimethyl ammonium chloride (DDAC), orbenzalkonium chloride (BAC).

In an embodiment, the hydrophobic silane moiety may include a quaternaryammonium salt functional group, such as but not limited to 3-trimethoxysilyl propyl dimethyl octadecyl ammonium chloride:

In an embodiment, the hydrophobic silane moiety possesses a hydrophobicsegment (e.g., the octadecyl appendage) and one or more types ofhydrophobic silane moieties may be coupled to the surface of theparticle to provide hydrophobic and/or anti-microbial activity to themultifunctional particle. In further embodiments, a hydrophobic silanemoiety comprises a hydrophobic chain and a polar embedded compound.These compounds include a polar group near the portion of the moietythat couples to the SiO₂-containing compound and a long hydrophobictail.

In still further embodiments, non-QAC compounds may be used asantimicrobial moieties in the multifunctional nanoparticle. For example,heavy metal ions like copper and silver may be used as antimicrobialagents. In an embodiment, a silane with a long hydrocarbon chain that iscapped by a silver or copper ion is coupled to the multifunctionalnanoparticle. For example, a reactive silane may be coupled to aSiO₂-containing nanoparticle, and then silver nitrate may be reacted tothe silane to chemically graft the silver ions to the particle.Similarly, copper-containing compounds may be reacted to the silane togenerate anti-microbial nanoparticles.

In some embodiments, a non-antimicrobial hydrophobic silane moiety,e.g., a fluorinated silane, may be coupled to the surface to providehydrophobic functionality to the multifunctional particle. Similarly, ananti-microbial silane moiety that is not hydrophobic may also be coupledto the surface to provide an anti-microbial silane moiety. In someembodiments, a single silane moiety, such as 3-trimethoxy silyl propyldimethyl octadecyl ammonium chloride, is both hydrophobic andanti-microbial when coupled to the surface. In other embodiments,however, multiple types of silane moieties are coupled to the surface toselectively provide functionality in addition to the hydrophobic andreactive functionality.

In an embodiment, a moiety having at least one appendage comprising areactive functional group and a hydrophilic repeating unit is coupled tothe surface of the particle. In one aspect, this moiety comprises mono-,di-, or tri-alkoxy silane, the hydrophilic repeating unit, and thereactive functional group, and is hereinafter referred to as the“reactive silane moiety.” The reactive silane moiety may be coupled tothe surface via covalent bonds, ionic bonds, or van der Waals forces. Insome embodiments, the reactive silane moiety comprises a reactivefunctional group (e.g., a functional end cap) that is configured tocouple to a surface other than the particle or allow forcopolymerization of the particle into polymer chains. In an embodiment,the reactive silane moiety further comprises a hydrophobic orhydrophilic linker chain. In still further embodiments, the reactivesilane moiety further comprises a group configured to couple to thesurface of the particle. In an embodiment, the linker chain is ahydrophilic repeating unit positioned between the reactive functionalgroup and the group configured to couple to the surface of the particle.

In some embodiments, the linker chain in the reactive silane moiety issubstantially hydrophobic. In an exemplary embodiment, the hydrophobicchain is selected from the group consisting of fluorocarbon andsilicone-polymer based (polydimethylsiloxane) and still features apositively charged group at the base. For example, the linker chain mayinclude polyethylene or alkyl-like repeating units, such as inN-(2-aminoethyl)-3-aminopropyltrimethoxysilane:

In other embodiments, however, the linker chain is a substantiallyhydrophilic repeating unit. For example, the linker chain may beoxyethylene or polyethylene glycol-like repeating segments, such as inN-3-[(amino(polypropylenoxy)]aminopropyltrimethoxysilane:

The selection of a hydrophobic linker chain or a hydrophilic linkerchain results in functional differences in the particle when combined ina matrix. For example, a hydrophobic segment in the linker chain reducesthe surface energy imbalance between the multifunctional particle and ahydrophobic matrix within which it may be included. In one example, amultifunctional particle that has a hydrophobic linker chain in thereactive silane moiety has a reduced surface energy imbalance when themultifunctional particle is included in a polymer, which is alsohydrophobic. As a result, the multifunctional particle is more stable inthe matrix of the polymer than a particle having a higher surface energyimbalance. The particle therefore distributes evenly throughout thematrix when dispersed therein.

In another embodiment, the reactive silane moiety has a hydrophiliclinker chain between the reactive functional group and the surface ofthe particle. The hydrophilic linker chain increases the surface energyimbalance between the multifunctional particle and the hydrophobicmatrix within which it is included. In some embodiments, the hydrophiliclinker chain is an oxyethylene or a polyethylene glycol-like chain. Infurther embodiments, the hydrophilic linker chains include polyamines,unsaturated polymers, hydroxyl-based silicones, and the like. In someembodiments, the surface energy of the polymer is identified and thelinker chain is selected to result in a different surface energy thanthe polymer. As a result, the multifunctional particle migrates to thesurface of the polymer, also known as blooming. Presence of thehydrophobic multifunctional particles on the surface of a polymer mayincrease the magnitude of the superhydrophobicity of the polymer, mayincrease the duration of the superhydrophobic functionality, and/or mayreduce the ratio of multifunctional particle to polymer used to generatethe superhydrophobic polymer

When a hydrophilic repeating unit such as an oxyethylene or apolyethylene glycol-like chain is used, the moiety is preferably chosensuch that it has a reactive functional end group to bond with thepolymer matrix. The functional end group can couple directly to thepolymer, such as via a silylsulfonylazide, or the functional end groupcan couple to an additive in the polymer that enhances chemical bondingof the polymer, such as a maleic anhydride co-polymer (Eastman Epolene,Dow Chemical Amplify GR).

In an embodiment, the reactive silane moiety includes a functional endcap configured to couple the multifunctional particle to a polymer orother material. It should be understood that the functional end cap maybe selected from a variety of reactive groups selected based on abilityto couple to compounds of interest, such as polymers or other surfaces.For example, the functional end cap may comprise an amine group.

In some embodiments, the reactive functional end group is determined bythe polymer system in question and chosen so as to maximize the covalentbonding of the system. For example, a polyethylene-maleic anhydridepolymer system would use superhydrophobic particles that have amino orepoxysilanes for coupling agents. For an acrylate system (such as ethylacrylate polymer, Dow Chemical Amplify EA) a functional end group couldbe an amine, vinyl, or acrylates.

If a vinyltrimethoxysilane-grafted polymer, such as Syncure, is used, adouble ended silane such as 1,8-bis(triethoxysilyl)octane (hydrophobiclinker) or bis(3-triethoxysilylpropyl)polyethylene oxide (hydrophiliclinker) can be used in order to extend coupling sites from the surfaceof the particle out from under the steric hindrance effects ofhydrophobic silanes. Similarly, particles functionalized with vinyl ormethacrylatoxy groups can be coupled to polyolefins in the presence ofperoxides.

In addition, some particles can be developed in which the reactivesilane moiety has a masked functionality that is opened up for bondingunder certain circumstances. This is similar to the sulfonylazides thatopen at high temperatures to reveal azide groups capable of injectioninto polyethylene. Silanes are available which are masked until exposureto moisture (for single component liquid-cure epoxy) or elevatedtemperatures (isocyanate functionality, for resin systems that curebetween 160-200° C.). Use of these reactive silane moieties can provideapplications in different coating systems such as packaging theseparticles into single component epoxies to increase shelf life withoutpreemptive reaction in the storage system.

Exemplary reactive silane moieties that include reactive functionalgroups include amine silanes, olefin silanes, anhydride silanes, epoxysilanes, halogen silanes, hydroxyl silanes, dipodal silanes, acrylatesilanes, sulfur-containing silanes, water based silanes, isocyanatesilanes, azide silanes, and/or combinations thereof.

Exemplary amine silanes include:n-(2-aminoethyl)-3-aminopropyltrimethoxysilane,3-aminopropyltriethoxysilane, 3-aminopropyltrimethoxysilane,n,n′-bis[3-(triethoxysilyl) propyl]urea, ureidopropyltrimethoxysilane,3-aminopropylmethyldiethoxysilane,n,n′-bis[(3-trimethoxysilyl)propyl]ethylenediamine,n1-(3-trimethoxysilylpropyl)diethylenetriamine,m-aminophenyltrimethoxysilane,n-(3-triethoxysilylpropyl)-4,5-dihydroimidazole,n-methylaminopropyltrimethoxysilane,3-aminopropyltris(methoxyethoxyethoxy)silane,ureidopropyltriethoxysilane,n-(2-aminoethyl)-3-aminopropylmethyldimethoxysilane, and/or combinationsthereof.

Exemplary olefin silanes include: styrylethyltrimethoxysilane,methacryloxypropyl-trimethoxysilane, vinyltriethoxysilane,triethoxysilyl modified poly-1,2-butadiene, vinylethoxysiloxanehomopolymer, vinyltriacetoxysilane, vinylmethoxysiloxane homopolymer,allyltrimethoxysilane, vinyltriisopropoxysilane, and combinationsthereof.

Exemplary anhydride silanes include (3-triethoxysilyl)propylsuccinicanhydride. Exemplary epoxy silanes include2-(3,4-epoxycyclohexyl)ethyltrimethoxysilane,(3-glycidoxy-propyl)trimethoxysilane, and combinations thereof.

Exemplary halogen silanes include:((chloromethyl)phenylethyl)trimethoxysilane,p-chloromethyl)phenyltrimethoxysilane, and combinations thereof.

Exemplary hydroxyl silanes includen,n-bis(2-hydroxyethyl)-3-aminopropyltriethoxysilane. Exemplary dipodalsilanes include: bis(3-trimethoxy-silylpropyl)amine,tris(3-trimethoxysilyl propyl)isocyanurate,1,6-bis(trimethoxysilyl)hexane, vinylmethoxysiloxane homopolymer,n,n′-bis[(3-trimethoxysilyl)propyl]ethylenediamine,trimethoxysilylpropyl modified (polyethylenimine),bis(trimethoxysilylethyl)benzene, 1,8-bis(triethoxysilyl)octane, andcombinations thereof.

Exemplary acrylate silanes include: (3-acryloxypropyl)trimethoxysilane,methacryloxypropyl-trimethoxysilane, and combinations thereof.

Exemplary isocyanate silanes include 3-isocyanatopropyltriethoxysilaneand the like.

Exemplary sulfur silanes include: 3-mercaptopropyltrimethoxysilane,3-mercaptopropyl-methyldimethoxysilane,bis[3-(triethoxysilyl)propyl]tetrasulfide,3-methacryloxypropyl-bis(trimethylsiloxy)methylsilane, and combinationsthereof.

Exemplary waterborne silanes include: aminopropylsilsesquioxane inaqueous solution, aminoethylaminopropylsilsesquioxane in aqueoussolution, and the like.

Exemplary azide silanes include 6-azidosulfonylhexyl-triethoxysilane andthe like.

In some embodiments, a molar ratio of approximately 1:3 (0.31:0.69)reactive silane moieties to hydrophobic silane moieties is used. Forexample, this ratio may be used when the multifunctional nanoparticle isused in wet polymer coatings (polymers dissolved in solvents). Thisratio has been found to provide good superhydrophobic performance anddurability. In some embodiments, varying the ratio will optimize theparticles for different applications and binder polymers. For example,when used in an epoxy powder coating application, a 1:1 molar ratio ofreactive silane moiety to hydrophobic silane moiety has increaseddurability while maintaining superhydrophobicity. FIG. 15 discloses achart of water contact angle (WCA) of flouro-amine particles in epoxypowder coat at varying percentages of amino silane molecules (i.e.,reactive silane moieties) on the particle. As shown in FIG. 15, areactive silane moiety percentage of from 20 to 50% of the number ofmoieties on the particle results in a water contact angle above 150° andtherefore a superhydrophobic characteristic.

In further embodiments, the molar ratio of the reactive silane moiety tothe hydrophobic silane moiety is 1:1, 3:1; 1:3, 1:10, or 10:1. Thepredicted characteristics of the resulting polymer/particle combinationsbased on the molar ratio of reactive/hydrophobic moieties on theparticle is presented in Table 1. It should be understood that otherratios, such as 1:2, 2:1, 1:4, 4:1, 1:6, 6:1, 1:8, and 8:1 reactivesilane moiety to hydrophobic silane moiety may be used.

TABLE 1 Molar Ratio Reactive:Hydrophobic Durability SuperhydrophobicityApplications 1:3 High High High end coatings 1:1 High Medium Decreasedcost 3:1 High Low Blooming (likely)  1:10 Low Very High Low wearrequirements 10:1  High Low TBD

In some embodiments, the reactive silane moiety and the hydrophobicsilane moiety are selected to reduce or minimize steric effects. Forexample, a reactive silane moiety and a hydrophobic silane moiety havingabout the same size or length may be coupled to the particle. The sizeor length of the moieties can be determined based on the length ofchains making up part of the moieties. For example, the hydrophobicsilane moiety and the reactive silane moiety may have an equal lengthhydrocarbon chain. In this way, the silane moieties do not substantiallyinterfere with one another and prevent either adhesion or hydrophobicityfrom occurring.

In further embodiments, a silane moiety can be added to the surface toprovide dedicated blooming functionality. For example, a silane moietycan be selected that does not result in hydrophobicity or reactivity totarget compounds, but instead is coupled to the surface to providemigrating or blooming functionality. In this manner, one silane moietycan be used for hydrophobic traits, one silane moiety can be used tocouple the particle to a binder, resin, or other material, and onesilane moiety can be used to provide or increase the blooming potentialof the particle in substances.

As discussed, a silane moiety can also be used to provide anti-microbialactivity or other antibiotic activity, e.g., anti-viral or anti-fungal,to the multifunctional particle. The silane moiety providinganti-microbial activity may be a dedicated silane moiety that is coupledto the surface for that purpose, or the silane moiety may providemultiple functionalities, such as being both anti-microbial andhydrophobic.

In some embodiments, a silane moiety is coupled to the surface andfunctionalized to serve as an indicator for applications such asbiological, biomedical, chemical signature identification, drug testing,and the like. For example, a silane moiety functionalized with a ligandthat is detectable when coupled to a target molecule may be used toidentify the presence of the target molecule.

In one embodiment, biomaterial applications could use diamine orhydroxyl silanes (1,8)bis(triethoxysilyl)octane) for bindingoligonucleotides. In another embodiment, DNA receptors could be based onaldehyde, diamine, or epoxy silanes to identify the presence of DNA. Forexample, an indicator compound could be coupled to the particle andindicate the presence of DNA sequences based on the DNA receptors.Similarly, various proteins could be coupled with amines/amides orsulfur compounds to couple to peptides or amino acid sequences. In stillfurther embodiments, an anti-microbial silane capable of destroyingmicrobes and/or featuring functional silanes to collect DNA or proteinsignatures may be generated. Another application could have a surfacewhich is tuned to couple to specific proteins or DNA while non-attachedproteins or DNA sequences are washed away due to the self-cleaningsuperhydrophobic properties.

In some embodiments, the order of attachment of the various moietiesaffects the functional characteristics of the particle. In someembodiments, the hydrophobic silane moiety is coupled to the surface ofthe silica particle before the reactive silane moiety, theanti-microbial silane moiety, the hydrophilic or blooming silane moiety,and/or a silane moiety providing additional functionality is coupled tothe surface of the particle. In an embodiment, the silane moieties areadded to the particles in a specific order. In one example, a dualfunctional particle comprising a QAC and amine compound is formed suchthat the QAC compound (packaged with chlorine ions) is added first, thenrinsed so as to remove the chlorine ions, and then the amine silane isadded. In some embodiments, adding the amino silane first would allowthe chlorine ions to react with the amine groups and later inhibitapplication of the particles.

In the case of hydrophilic linker chain silanes (such as silanes thatenhance blooming), in some embodiments they are added to the particlefirst in a water-borne or alcohol system, and then the fluorinatedcompound is added in a non-polar system. This order is because thehydrophilic silane moieties may not graft to the particles easily in thenon-polar system. For example, this tendency has been observed whenfunctionalizing particles with silylsulfonylazides in hexane (the silanedid not disperse) compared to ethanol (the silane dispersed and graftedto the particle).

In some embodiments, the time of addition of different moieties canprovide additional functionality or improved functionality to themultifunctional nanoparticle or to substances comprising themultifunctional nanoparticle. For example, a particle having a reactivesilane moiety and a hydrophobic moiety may bloom to the surface of apolymer or other compound and remain chemically active. A silver nitratemay then be reacted to the particle to chemically graft the silver ionsto the particle, resulting in a polymer having a superhydrophobicsurface, greater durability, and antibiotic characteristics.

The hydrophobic silane moiety, in some embodiments, is covalently bondedto the surface of the particle at one end. The surface functionalizationof the particle can be carried out with the neat hydrophobic silanemoiety, or as a precursor in a non-reactive solvent such as ahydrocarbon, an ether, or a fluorinated solvent. In some cases, theparticle can have the hydrophobic silane moiety contact its surface fromthe vapor phase. The surface functionalization can be carried out withan added non-nucleophilic proton acceptor such as a tertiary amine, forexample triethylamine or pyridine, to scavenge acidic byproducts of thereaction. A catalyst can be included to accelerate the formation of theself-assembled monolayer. Sol-gel chemistry generally uses water as acatalyst to aid in the silane-grafting mechanism when the silane leavinggroup is methanol or ethanol. Hydrolysis of the silane and surface aredependent on factors such as the leaving group of the silane, pH of thesystem, and functionalization method (spray, immersion, etc). Thesemethods often incorporate catalysts to ensure good, secure bonding.

Water can also be included in the formulation. The amount of added waterwill depend upon the amount of residual water on the pretreatedsubstrate and the nature of the hydrophobic silane moiety used. Watercan be introduced as a liquid or a vapor. In many cases, water vaporfrom ambient air is sufficient to react with the hydrophobic silanemoiety to interconnect the hydrophobic silane moiety into the structuredstable SAM coating. The time and temperature needed for effectiveformation of the SAM coating will depend upon the structure of thehydrophobic silane moiety and any solvent, scavenger, or catalyst used.With many of the hydrophobic silane moieties the treatment can becarried out rapidly at normal room temperatures. In some embodiments,temperatures of about 0 to about 100° C. or more can be used. Reactiontimes can vary from as little as about 2 minutes to about 24 hoursdepending on the hydrophobic silane moiety and conditions used for theSAM formation. In general, any excess hydrophobic silane moiety andby-products formed during deposition and coupling can be readily removedfrom the surface by washing or in some cases by applying a vacuum and/orheat.

The resulting particles, which are functionalized with the hydrophobicsilane moiety, can be dried before the reactive silane moiety is coupledto the single-function particles. In some embodiments, thesingle-function particles are rinsed to remove impurities. For example,if a chlorine-containing silane moiety was used to functionalize thesurface, then a rinsing procedure can be used to remove the chlorinegroups. This is accomplished by taking single silane functionalizedsilica particles and rinsing in hexane, then filtering and drying theparticles to remove residual chlorine groups on the surface. These cleanparticles are then immersed in hexane and mixed with the reactive silanemoiety and water. This allows for the reactive silane moiety to coupleto open Si—OH groups on the particle. These available bond sites are dueto incomplete functionalization of the particle due to steric effects orshort reaction times.

In other embodiments, the reactive silane moiety is coupled to thesurface of the particle before the hydrophobic silane moiety is coupledto the surface of the particle. The reactive silane moiety includeshydrolysable groups such as an alkoxy, acyloxy, halogen, or amine, whichform reactive SiOH groups upon hydrolysis. Siloxane linkages are formedwhen the reactive SiOH groups of the reactive silane moiety condensewith the SiOH groups on the surface of the silica particles. Theresulting silica particles, which are functionalized with the reactivesilane moieties, can be dried before the hydrophobic silane moiety orhydrophilic silane moiety are coupled to the single silanefunctionalized silica particles.

In additional or alternative embodiments, the hydrophobic silane moiety,the reactive silane moiety, and/or silane moieties providing additionalfunctionality are simultaneously coupled to the surface of the particle.For example, hydrophobic silane moieties such as fluorosilanes that havea (m)ethoxy head group termination can be mixed with similarlyterminated reactive silane moieties such that both compoundssimultaneously couple to the particle. Methoxy and ethoxy silanes can beintermixed for reaction times, such that the methoxy compound willcouple before the ethoxy compound. For example,6-aminohexyl-3-aminopropyltrimethoxysilane (coupling agent) and1H,1H,2H,2H-perfluorooctyltrimethoxysilane (hydrophobic silane) can besimultaneously mixed with water and hexane to deposit a multifunctionalSAM onto silica particles. In this way, trichlorosilanes, which producechlorine that reacts with the reactive silane moieties, can be avoided.In some embodiments, aminopropylsilanes are used to treat fluorinateddiatomaceous earth particles (FDE) to create fluoro-amino-diatomaceousearth.

In further embodiments, the multifunctional particle comprises apredetermined ratio of the hydrophobic silane moiety, the reactivesilane moiety, the hydrophilic or blooming silane moiety, and the silanemoieties providing other functionality. The ratio of the silanemoieties, in some embodiments, is based on the application of themultifunctional particles, the composition formulation of themultifunctional particles, targeted properties, the type of reactivesilane moiety, the type of hydrophobic silane moiety, the type ofhydrophilic or blooming silane moiety, the type of anti-microbial silanemoiety, and the like.

Referring now to FIG. 1A, an exemplary multifunctional particle withlong hydrocarbon chains for superhydrophobicity and amino-functionalchains for binding to polymers is illustrated. Not shown is theinterlinking of silane head groups (—O—Si—O—Si—O—) on the nanoparticlesurface. The hydrocarbon chains are shown for simplicity but areinterchangeable for fluorocarbon chains.

In FIG. 1B, another exemplary multifunctional particle is shown. Theparticle is depicted having both blooming and optional anti-microbialfunctionality in accordance with various embodiments of the disclosure.As shown in FIG. 1B, a silica particle is functionalized with threedifferent types of moieties, exemplified as the reaction products ofalkoxysilanes with different moieties A, B, or C, which are: (A) areactive functional group and a hydrophilic blooming linker moiety; (B)a hydrophobic fluorinated moiety; and (C) a hydrophobic anti-microbialmoiety. The resulting multifunctional particle is capable of binding totargets and/or configured to migrate to the surface of hydrophobicpolymers via the reactive, hydrophilic moiety. The resultingmultifunctional particle provides superhydrophobic characteristics tothe surface of the polymer via the hydrophobic fluorinated moiety.Finally, the multifunctional particle can be configured to provideanti-microbial properties to the polymer via the hydrophobicanti-microbial moiety. Other moieties may be added to themultifunctional particle to provide additional functionality.

To demonstrate that the multifunctional particles are chemicallyreactive, in some embodiments, a chemical indicator can be used tochange the color of the particles. For example, ninhydrin can be usedfor turning treated materials purple. FIG. 2 shows multifunctionalparticles 200 treated with ninhydrin that have turned purple as a resultof the treatment. Non-multifunctional superhydrophobic materials arecolored by either fluorinating pigment particles or modifying theparticle spacing or orientation in order to take advantage of surfaceoptical properties to produce a color by light refraction andinterference.

While this disclosure is focused on multiple functionalization of silicaparticles, the technology may also be applied to differentnanotopographies of inorganic metal oxide materials as particles. Forexample, silica is an excellent particle for coupling to silanes, butquartz, glass, aluminum, aluminum oxide, zirconium oxide,alumino-silicates, silicon, and copper may also be used as particles. Infurther embodiments, tin, talc, inorganic oxides (e.g., Fe2O3, TiO2,Cr2O3, etc.), steel, iron asbestos, nickel, zinc, zinc oxide, and leadmay be used as particles. While marble, chalk (CaCO3), gypsum (CaSO4),barytes (BaSO4), graphite, and carbon black are less effective particlesfor coupling to silanes, these may also be the basis by whichmultifunctional particles are formed in accordance with someembodiments.

Further, while this disclosure focuses on silica particles withincompounds such as diatomaceous earth and fumed silica, additionalvariations of silica and non-silica containing structures may be used.For example, a transparent nanoporous silica substrate can be used togenerate transparent superhydrophobic coatings. In this example, thecoatings would have both superhydrophobic character and coupling sitesfor chemical adhesion, such as bonding an oil to the surface, providingligands or indicators for specific compounds, and providing opticalsignature materials, etc. In further embodiments, carbon nanotubes thatare treated to have functional groups may be used, whereinfunctionality-providing grafts are coupled to the functional groupssimilar to silanes and silica particles.

In one embodiment, a general superhydrophobic surface can be impregnatedwith a perfluorinated oil to result in a “super slippery” surface. Insome embodiments, a multifunctional superhydrophobic surface enables theuse of a functional perfluorinated silicone or hydrocarbon oil that canbond to adhesive sites on the multifunctional particle. This results ina chemically-bonded oil that has both covalent bonds to the coating andinherent fluorine-fluorine affinity, yet still allows the “superslippery” surface characteristics. The covalent bonds increase thedurability of the oil treatment on the material.

In some embodiments, an oleophobic surface is generated by providingfunctional groups attached to silanes, wherein the functional groups areoleophobic. In still further embodiments, an icephobic surface isgenerated by providing functional groups attached to silanes, whereinthe functional groups are icephobic. The combination of the hydrophobicsilane moiety, the reactive silane moiety, the hydrophilic agent, andthe oleophobic or icephobic functional groups on the multifunctionalcompound can be used to generate oleophobic or icephobic substrates thathave many uses in industry.

Compositions

Silica particles can be singly functionalized with one chemical to givehydrophobic surface functionality to the particle. Mechanical durabilityof such surfaces, however, is generally extremely low and thus unusablein real world applications as particles have no surface chemistry tobond to and are generally pinned to the surface mechanically. Polymersgenerally polymerize around the particles and form voids surroundingthem, allowing for mechanical pinning, but this also creates voids andfractures in the material due to the presence of non-polar particleswhich cannot meld with the polymer. As a result, mechanical brushing orhigh energy water impacts can easily remove the particles and allow thesurface to wet.

Addition of reactive moieties to the nanoparticles allows for strongcovalent bonds to couple the nanoparticle to a surface or allow forcopolymerization of the particles into polymer chains. These reactivemoieties can be selected to specifically bind to a number of materials,allowing for customizable nanoparticles.

Addition of a hydrophilic agent, such as a hydrophilic repeating unit inthe reactive silane moiety or a dedicated hydrophilic moiety coupled tothe surface of the particle, provides blooming functionality to themultifunctional particle. The hydrophilic repeating unit in the reactivesilane moiety does not prevent strong covalent bonds from formingbetween the nanoparticle and the surface and does not preventcopolymerization of the particles into polymer chains. Similarly, thededicated hydrophilic moiety couples to the surface and increases theenergetic difference between the multifunctional particle and thehydrophobic polymer, thereby increasing blooming and migration of themultifunctional particle to the surface of the polymer. In this way, theblooming moiety increases presentation of the hydrophobic moiety on thesurface of the polymer and improves the superhydrophobicity of thepolymer.

In some embodiments, a composition comprising the multifunctionalparticle is provided. In further embodiments, the composition furtherincludes a binder solution for dispersing the multifunctional particles,solvents, water, processing aids, fillers, color agents, biocides,polymers, asphalt, and/or other materials. Exemplary polymers includethermosets, acrylates, methacrylates, polyesters, urethanes, epoxies,phenolics, thermoplastics, polydienes, polyvinyl chloride, polyphenylenesulfide, acrylics, maleic anhydride, vinyl acetate, diene-containingcopolymers, halogen-modified homopolymers, chlorosulfonyl-modifiedhomopolymers, polyamides, polyesters, polycarbonates, polysulfones,olefins, and combinations thereof. In some embodiments, the polymers arecopolymerized with the multifunctional particles. For example, thepresence of a polymer-compatible self-assembled monolayer allows formultifunctional particles to copolymerize with pre-polymers, such asPVC, urethane, epoxies, and thermoresins, which will react with thereactive groups of the reactive silane moiety. In other embodiments, thereactive silane moiety is matched to the targeted polymer. For example,reactive second moieties with amine groups may be better suited to reactor bind to fluorocarbons and styrene butadienes and less suited to bindto nitrile and isoprene. In some exemplary embodiments, the compositionincludes N-(2-aminoethyl)-3-aminopropyltrimethoxysilane or anotherreactive silane moiety and epoxies, phenolics, melamines, nylons, PVCacrylics, urethanes, nitrile rubbers, thermoset polymers such asdialyphthalate, epoxy imide, melamine, paraffin, phenolic, polyester,urethane, cellulosics, polyacetal, polyamide, polybutyleneterephthalate, and polycarbonates, as well as sealants such aspolysulfides.

In some cases, when fluorocarbon/amino dual functional diatomaceousearth (FADE) particles are mixed with a pre-polymer, the resultingmaterial has superior properties compared to the mixture having FDE(singly functional fluorinated diatomaceous earth) particles. Forexample, mixing FDE and PVC (polyvinylchloride) cement results in adelicate superhydrophobic surface (e.g., not durable, easily broken),but mixing FADE with PVC cement results in a mechanically durablematerial that has very high hydrophobicity because the FADE particleshave bonded directly to polymer chains. Additionally, mixing FDE with asilicone thermoresin and heat treating results in a rough, non-durablesuperhydrophobic material, while using FADE results in a smooth,durable, and robust material that is superhydrophobic.

Additionally, particles can be treated in a “lock-key” fashion in whichone set of multifunctional particles can be treated with one side of anadhesive compound, and another set of multifunctional particles can betreated with the other side of the adhesive compound similar to atwo-part epoxy adhesive compounds. For example, an epoxy-type ofdiatomaceous earth package could be formulated in which particles A havean epoxide-silane (epoxy) and particles B have amino-silane (hardenercompound). Combining these particles in such a fashion to facilitate areaction that results in the particles being crosslinked to one another,and the presence of free fluorocarbon chains also gives the epoxysuperhydrophobicity. Exemplary reactive silane moieties for use in theseepoxy systems include aminosilanes and acrylicsilanes. Mixtures of thesecompounds form a hard resin material upon heating, which results inparticles continuously embedded in a surface having high mechanicaldurability to brushing or high energy water impacts.

Also provided herein are methods for forming superhydrophobic surfacesusing the disclosed multifunctional particles. In some embodiments, themultifunctional particles or a composition comprising themultifunctional particles are introduced to a surface of a substrate. Insome exemplary embodiments, the multifunctional particles are applied tothe surface of the substrate. For example, a coating comprising themultifunctional particles may be sprayed, brushed, or rolled on thesubstrate surface, or the substrate may be dipped into the coating. Infurther embodiments, the multifunctional particles are covalently bondedto the surface of the substrate. In other exemplary embodiments, themultifunctional particles may be mixed with polymer, polymer precursors,or other material and an article may be formed from the polymer withsuperhydrophobic surface properties, where the blooming functionality ofthe multifunctional particle then results in the particle or at least aportion of the particles migrating to the surface of the substrate andproviding enhanced superhydrophobic characteristics to the resultingproduct. The article or product having a superhydrophobic surface may beformed by extrusion, reactive injection molding, thermoset molding,injection molding, rotational compression molding, which can optionallyinvolve heat curing, heating, air drying, and the like to assist orfacilitate blooming of the multifunctional particles.

Examples Preparation of Compositions Comprising Singly Functional SilicaParticles:

A) Polyvinylchloride (PVC) Cement Experiment

-   -   Combine in a glass beaker:    -   10.5 g methyl ethyl ketone (MEK)    -   1.0 g PVC cement    -   0.1 g 1H,1H,2H,2H-perfluorooctyltrichlorosilane (Rf—Si)    -   0.5 g FDE (fluorinated diatomaceous earth)

Blend the above mixture for at least 1 minute. Spray onto substrateusing a PREVAL® Spray Gun. The mixture results in a surface that issuperhydrophobic after drying, but that has low durability. Particlesare mechanically pinned to the coating and abrasion can dislodge them.Optionally, spray with a PDMS/Toluene mixture for an oleophobic coating.

B) Aramid Fiber Experiment

-   -   Combine:    -   50 g Acetone    -   5 g FDE    -   0.5 g FAS (Fluorocarbon Silane)

Blend the above mixture for 30 seconds, and then pour solution over eachside of KEVLAR® (aramid fiber) sample. Resulted in a superhydrophobicsurface, but the particles did not stick to the surface of the KEVLAR®sample.

Preparation of Multifunctional Particles:

A) Bonding Reactive Silane Moiety Before Bonding Hydrophobic SilaneMoiety

i) Formulation A

-   -   Combined in glass beaker    -   12.2 g DE    -   0.5 g APS (aminopropyltrimethoxysilane)    -   24.8 g EtOH (ethanol)

Blend the above mixture for 15 minutes. Add 34 g of EtOH to rinse thesides of the glass beaker. Pour EtOH out, leaving 64.6 g total solution.Dip borosilicate slide into the solution, leave immersed in the solutionfor 1 minute. Spray solution on mesh, plastic, and additionalborosilicate slide. Dry coated samples in direct sunlight. Some of thematerial stuck very well to the glass slide. Adhesion was judged bylight finger abrasion. The glass slides from the above experiment had ahard film that was scratch resistant. The solution that was poured intoa glass dish had dried out and formed a cake. These cakes were muchsturdier than the cakes that result from drying out fluorinateddiatomaceous earth.

-   -   Mix for 1 minute:    -   0.6 g Rf—Si    -   68 g Xylol

Immerse coated glass slide for 1 minute in the above solution. Drysamples overnight in ambient conditions. Mix the remainingaminofunctional diatomaceous earth with Xylol/Rf—Si solution. Dip oneglass slide in solution; leave in glass dish overnight. After drying,the amine-functional particles in the glass dish were found to besuperhydrophobic. Coated glass slide also showed hydrophobicity.

ii) Formulation B

-   -   Combine in a container and blend for several minutes:    -   100 g Hexane    -   7 g Diatomaceous Earth    -   1 g methacryloxypropyltrimethoxysilane    -   2 mL H₂O

It was noted that the reaction was gaseous. The resulting functionalizedparticles were filtered off with coffee filters, and then rinsed bydecanting with hexane. The filtered particles were then heated at 150°F. to dry out the particles.

B) Bonding Hydrophobic Silane Moiety Before Bonding Reactive SilaneMoiety

i) Formulation A

-   -   Rinse particles by blending:    -   5.0 g FDE    -   37.1 g Hexane, then decant hexane.    -   Start with about 32 g of Clean FDE in Hexane:    -   Add 14.0 g Hexane    -   Add 1.0 g APTES        [(N-(2-aminoethyl)3-aminopropyltrimethoxysilane)]    -   Blend solution, allow to air dry.

The APTES to diatomaceous earth weight ratio was determined as follows.The wetting surface (ws) of APTES=355 m²/g. Assume the followingdiatomaceous earth surface area (milled): typical: 10-30 m²/g;DiaSource: 69.05 m²/g; Perma-Guard: 26-28 m²/g; milling estimate: 50-60m²/g. Calculate the weight ratio to be 1/7th to ⅙th g APTES per gdiatomaceous earth.

ii) Formulation B

-   -   Rising Step:    -   Combined in a container:    -   178.2 g FDE    -   Rinse 1: 217.5 g Hexane    -   Rinse 2: 242.6 g Hexane

Mix the FDE and the 217.5 g of hexane for 5 minutes with blender. Keepmixture container sealed and allow the FDE to settle. Decant the hexane,and then repeat the above step for Rinse 2. After two rinses, 174.3 g ofclean powder resulted.

Batch 1: Combine and blend after every addition:

-   -   30.0 g clean FDE (from the rinsing step above)    -   Add 46.5 g Hexane    -   Add 5 g (2-aminoethyl)-3-aminopropyltrimethoxysilane    -   Add 2 mL Distilled H₂O    -   Add 19 g Hexane

After the 19 g of hexane is added, mix the Batch 1 for several minutes(solution is hot).

Batch 2: Combine and blend after every addition:

-   -   30.0 g clean FDE (from the rinsing step above)    -   Add 75 g Hexane, plus an additional ˜20 g    -   Add 5 g AHS (aminohexylaminopropyltrimethoxysilane)    -   Add 2 mL H₂O

After the 2 mL of H₂O is added, blend Batch 2 for 5 minutes (solution ishot). Heat both batches at 170° F. to remove hexane.

iii) Formulation C Combine in a Container and in Order:

-   -   10 g FDE clean    -   66 g Hexane    -   1 g Acrylic silane methyacryloxypropyl-trimethoxysilane    -   14 g Hexane    -   1 mL H₂O

Upon blending the above mixture, it was observed that initially therewere continuous plumes of hexane vapor and smell of a gas.

iv) Formulation D Combined in a Container:

-   -   2.8 g FDE (cleaned)    -   18 g Hexane    -   0.6 g AHAPTMS (aminohexylaminopropyltrimethoxysilane)    -   0.5 g H₂O

Stir the mixture by hand using a stirring instrument and decant theparticles. Recovered 4.8 g wet particles.

v) Formulation E Combined in a Container:

-   -   3.0 g FDE    -   19 g Hexane    -   0.6 g MAPTMS (methacryloxypropyltrimethoxysilane)

Stir the mixture by hand using a stirring instrument and decant theparticles. Recovered 3.8 g wet particles. When dried, 2.7 g grams ofparticles were recovered.

C) Reaction Sequence for adding Blooming Moiety to the MultifunctionalParticle: In some embodiments, the order that the blooming moiety iscoupled to the SiO₂-containing compound alters the functionalcharacteristics of the resulting multifunctional compound. In someembodiments, the blooming silane moiety may be added to theSiO₂-containing compound first in a water-borne or alcohol system, andthen the hydrophobic silane moiety added in a non-polar system. Anexemplary reaction sequence is as follows:

-   -   1. Bake particles out to remove moisture, 225° F. for several        hours.    -   2. Immerse particles in ethanol sufficient enough to fully wet        and easily blend the particles.    -   3. Add quantity of blooming silane moiety.    -   4. Blend for several minutes.    -   5. Add quantity of hydrophobic silane moiety, blend for several        minutes.    -   6. Dry particles.        Treating Multifunctional Particles with Ninhydrin:

To validate the chemical reactivity of the multifunctional particles,the particles were treated with an aminoalkylsilane, which is generallyused as a reactive silane moiety. These nanoparticles were treated withninhydrin, a chemical indicator which shows the presence of amino (—NH₂)groups by turning the surface blue or purple. Treating silica particlesfunctionalized with only the hydrophobic silane moieties resulted inyellow color, which is the same color as the ninhydrin, indicating thatamino groups were not present. Fluorocarbon-functionalized diatomaceousearth was rinsed in hexane and functionalized with the aminoalkylsilane,and then these particles were rinsed to remove non-bound amino groups.Immersion of the nanoparticles in a 0.5 wt % ninhydrin in isopropanolsolution resulted in the solution turning deep purple. The purple colorhas remained through many rinse/centrifuge/decant cycles with bothhexane and isopropanol as the rinsing agent and through ultrasonicationof particles to try and remove weakly bonded purple pigment groups fromthe particle surface. The nanoparticles were dried and found to be stillsuperhydrophobic with the purple color change permanent, indicating thatthe nanoparticles can also have their color changed through chemicaltreatment.

A) Procedure for Ninhydrin Treatment: In a 2.0 mL microcentrifuge tube,put approximately 0.2 g of multifunctional particle powder into the tube(fill up to the 0.5 mL line). Fill the rest of the tube with ninhydrinsolution. Close lid and shake tube to blend particles into the ninhydrinsolution. Amine functional particles will show color change in the spanof several seconds through minutes to hours, depending on theconcentration of amine silanes on the particles. In some embodiments, asmall 1 mL vial is filled with about 0.25 mL of unpacked fluoroaminefumed silica particle powder and about 0.5-1.0 mL of Ninhydrin solution(Carolina Biology Supply, 0.5% Ninhydrin solution in isopropanol). Thepowder should turn purple within 30 minutes. Use preheated powder forfaster reaction.

B) Ninhydrin Treatment and Multifunctional Particle Preparation

-   -   Combine in a container:    -   50 g FDE (cleaned)    -   90 g Hexane    -   8.2 g AHS (aminohexylaminopropyltrimethoxysilane)    -   3 mL H₂O Distilled

Plus additional 100 mL Hexane to get particles distributed into liquid.Blend the FDE particles in the mixture for several minutes, and thenfilter the mixture with coffee filters. Heat the filtered mixture at230° F. to speed up hexane removal. Rinse the filtered multifunctionalparticles according to the rinse cycle procedure below two times priorto ninhydrin testing to help eliminate unbounded amino silanes from theparticles. After 24 hours, the multifunctional particles turned blue.

Rinse Cycle Procedure:

Place a small aliquot of particles in 2.0 mL microcentrifuge tube. Fillthe tube with fresh hexane. Shake the tube to form a uniform solution.Centrifuge the solution at 3300 RPM for 60 seconds. Decant the solutionand then refill the tube with fresh hexane and repeat. After anotherdecant, fill the tube with the ninhydrin solution. Particles changedcolor after reacting with ninhydrin.

After five days, the multifunctional particle powder was again treatedwith ninhydrin, but the powder turned a light purple and did not turn aspurple as the previously tested multifunctional particle powder despitebeing previously rinsed. To establish that the difference in the shadesof purple was not linked to hexane presence, the multifunctionalparticle powder was tested against a control. The control includedunfunctionalized diatomaceous earth powder that was rinsed 2 times withpurified hexane and tested with ninhydrin. No difference was seenbetween a hexane-rinsed diatomaceous earth and the control diatomaceousearth. It was concluded that (—NH₂) groups decay over time or react withair.

Preparation of Compositions that Include Silica Particles andPolypropylene

i) Control

-   -   Combine and blend:    -   4.1 g PP (polypropylene)    -   29 g Xylol

ii) Single Functional Particle Composition

-   -   Combine and blend:    -   5.0 g PP    -   1.2 g Phenyl-functionalized DE    -   39 g Xylol

Heat the control and the composition mixtures to 140° C., blend theheated mixture, and then pour the heated mixture into a mold. Thepolymer substrate was removed from the mold and found to lacksuperhydrophobicity.

iii) Methacrylate Silane Formulation:

-   -   15 g diatomaceous earth at room temperature    -   133 g Hexane    -   1.5 g Methacrylate silane    -   Plus <1 g H₂

iv) Octadecyltrichlorosilane Silane Formulation:

Rolled 3.0 g of PP in 1.0 g DE functionalized withoctadecyltrichlorosilane (ODCx). PP granules were covered with a thicklayer of ODCx. The coated granules were heated to 150° C. There was toomuch ODCx for the entire granule collection to melt together, but someof the granule collection conglomerated. This conglomeration wasobserved to be superhydrophobic and durable with moderate fingerrubbing.

v) Preparation of a Silica Particle/Polymer Construction

To prepare the construction, the interior surface of a mold ispre-dusted with a layer of appropriate particles and othercatalysts/additives and the polymer melt is injected so that the powderbecomes stabilized on the surface of the resulting polymer part. Forexample, a layer of functionalized diatomaceous earth is placed onto adiamond-like carbon (DLC) coated aluminum. Heat polymer (e.g., PP) andplace the polymer into a mold, then cover with another layer offunctionalized diatomaceous earth. Use another diamond-coated aluminumto press the coated PP mold into a sandwich construction.

Variation 1 (Paste Method):

Blend the functionalized diatomaceous earth into a solvent, making apaste, and then blend the paste into a hot polymer. In one experiment,0.3 g methacrylic functionalized diatomaceous earth was blended with 0.7g mineral spirits to make a paste, and then the paste was blended withapproximately 12 g of heated PP.

Variation 2 (Blend Method):

Blend a multifunctional diatomaceous earth powder into a hot polymermelt. In these experiments, the polymer was placed into a mold andmelted at 400° F., and then removed from heat. Multifunctionaldiatomaceous earth was placed onto the surface of the polymer melt andmanually blended into the PP at roughly 3-10 wt %. An excess amount ofparticles was used, and unbounded particles were recovered for futureuse. The polymer blend was then placed back into the oven to heat at400° F. for another 15-20 minutes.

Variation 3 (Press Method):

Press a multifunctional diatomaceous earth into the surface of a hotpolymer melt. In these experiments, the polymer was placed into a moldand melted at 400° F., and then removed from heat. The surface pressmethod is similar to the blend method, except the particles were brushedonto the surface at less than 1 wt % and lightly pressed for severalseconds. An excess amount of particles was used, and unbounded particleswere recovered for future use. The polymer blend was then placed backinto the oven to heat at 400° F. for another 15-20 minutes.

vi) Test Observations for the Silica Particle/Polymer Construction

-   -   a) Fluorinated Silica Particles (single functionality): The        construction was found to not be superhydrophobic because the        particles became concealed by the polymer during cure in the        press and blend methods described hereinabove. Some amount of        superhydrophobicity was observed with the press method, but        these particles were not bound and simply washed away with water        or were blown off with air.    -   b) Non-functionalized Silica Particles: The construction was        observed to be not superhydrophobic as particles became embedded        into the material.    -   c) Amine-functionalized Silica Particles: The particles in this        construction were successful in maintaining surface coverage in        the blend and press methods. These samples appeared to have the        most durability to finger rubbing.    -   d) Vinyl-functionalized Silica Particles: The particles in this        construction were successful in maintaining surface coverage in        the blend and press methods. These samples appeared to have good        durability to finger rubbing.    -   e) Azide-functionalized Silica Particles: The particles in this        construction had some success, although samples had some areas        of hydrophilicity that could have been due to manufacturing        technique.    -   f) Methacryloxy-, Octadecyl-, and Phenyl-functionalized Silica        Particles: These polymer blends were not superhydrophobic.

Although the constructions and compositions were prepared using PP, itwill be understood that any number of polymers can be used. It will befurther understood, that the polymer construction can also be preparedby processing the multifunctional silica particles as a polymer blendadditive such as in co-extrusion.

-   -   g) Blooming moiety-containing particle: In some embodiments,        weight loading for a fumed silica product, such as Aerosil 300,        is around 17%. For example, to generate a blooming        moiety-containing particle, the following amounts may be used:        -   10 g Aerosil 300        -   0.38 g Amino-hexyl-aminopropyl-triethoxysilane        -   1.30 g tridecafluoro-1,1,2,2,-tetrahydrooctyl            trimethoxysilane

These amounts lead to a theoretical surface coverage of about 16.8%.This same weight loading has been used for preliminary bloomingexperiments in LLDPE polyethylene with maleic anhydride and erucamide.

An 8% weight loading (resulting in 8% surface area) results in a wetpolymer coating that was not superhydrophobic. However, usingdiatomaceous earth (30 m²/g versus 300 m²/g for Aerosil 300)superhydrophobic coatings can be obtained with as little as 4 wt %loading, but this would result in about 40% surface area coverage. In anembodiment, the lower limit of surface area coverage is about 10% andthe maximum is about 100%. In this matter, one can use the same loadingof particle (17 wt %) but a different particle (Aerosil 150, with 150m²/g) that would result in a 34% surface area coverage. This particlemay be used to generate superhydrophobic coatings using low weightloading for particles, where 8 wt % would result in roughly 16% surfacecoverage.

Preparation of Compositions that Include Silica Particles and Epoxies

Diatomaceous earth particles have a surface area of about 30 m²/g. Thesilanes used both have a coverage rating of about 300 m²/g. Thus, thetheoretical particle surface area is 150 m² and the silanes occupy 90m², for a total surface coverage of 60%. This is well in excess of whathas been shown to produce superhydrophobic diatomaceous earth, which isabout 17% theoretical area when using chlorosilanes. By adding X amountof aminosilane first, the aminosilanes will cover a certain percent ofthe particle first, and then the 0.5 g of fluorosilane will completelysaturate the rest of the particle, then be rinsed out of the particlesin post-production. For example, putting 0.1 grams of silane on 5.0 gdiatomaceous earth would theoretically cover 20% of the particles,leaving 80% of the surface for the fluorosilane. See Table 2 below forfurther details.

TABLE 2 Amount Fluorine of Aminosilane X (g) Amine surface coveragesurface coverage 0 0 100%  0.1 20% 80% 0.2 40% 60% 0.3 60% 40% 0.4 80%20% 0.5 100%  0

Diatomaceous earth particles were functionalized according to theformulation provided below, having both fluorinated and alkylaminesilanes.

-   -   5.0 g diatomaceous earth    -   0.2 g FAOS (1H,1H,2H,2H-perfluorooctyltrimethoxysilane)        (hydrophobic silane)    -   0.1 g AHAPS (6-aminohexyl-3-aminopropyltrimethoxysilane)        (coupling agent)    -   7 g Hexane    -   0.04 g Water

The resulting multifunctional particles constituted the FADE(fluorocarbon/amino multifunctional diatomaceous earth) particles. Anadditional lot of diatomaceous earth was functionalized with justfluorinated silanes. This constituted the FDE particles (a controlgroup). These particles were used to create two powder coatings onaluminum coupons as follows:

-   -   i) Base coat: Epoxy Powder    -   ii) Top coat: 80 wt % Epoxy Powder, 20% diatomaceous earth        powder

One coating incorporated FADE particles, the other used FDE particles.These powder coatings were deposited and cured according to manufacturerinstructions. First, the aluminum coupon was coated with the epoxypowder until the surface was saturated. The coupon was then coated withthe epoxy/diatomaceous earth powder blend until the surface wassaturated. The coupons were cured at 400° F. for 10 minutes.

After cooling, both coatings were mechanically dusted by hand and blownwith 30 psi of compressed air. The epoxy coating formulated with FADEparticles was superhydrophobic and the particles were not removed by thecompressed air. The top layer of the FDE coupon, on the other hand, didnot adhere to the coupon surface and was blown off, resulting in anon-superhydrophobic coating. Afterwards, the coupons were analyzed withSEM as shown in FIGS. 3 and 4. FIG. 3 illustrates an image of the epoxycoating with the FADE particles and FIG. 4 illustrates an image of theepoxy coating with the FDE particles.

The presence of amino silanes on the FADE allowed coupling of thediatomaceous earth to the epoxy chemicals, allowing coupling of theparticles to the surface as well as allowing epoxy polymers to form tothe particle as opposed to concealing the particle. These FADE-Epoxycoatings are superhydrophobic and show increased levels of mechanicaldurability over other non-multifunctionalized coatings as determined byabrasion resistance to an ungloved finger. This FADE-Epoxy coatingshowed to be resistant to high water pressure, which was unable topenetrate the coating and wet at all. Other coatings were found to besusceptible to the same high water pressure, creating areas where thesuperhydrophobic coating was wetted.

In the above FADE formulation, it is thought that the overall particlebehavior is dependent on the ratio of hydrophobic silane moiety to(hydrophilic) reactive silane moiety. That is, the particle has amajority of hydrophobic surface area in order to produce asuperhydrophobic nanoparticle. The mass of hexane is based on largerscale production levels of hexane to diatomaceous earth ratios and wasnot found to be practical for this small scale testing.

Particles were coated as above, but the FADE were produced with varyingamounts of amino silane. These particles have a surface area of about 30m²/g, and the silanes used in this study have a surface coverage ratingof about 300 m²/g. Thus, 1.0 g of diatomaceous earth could be 100%covered by 0.1 g of total silane. However, the true amount of surfacecoverage is limited by steric hindrance and reaction time.

In order to facilitate the coupling of aminosilanes to the particle, theaminosilanes and water were blended into the solution first for severalminutes before addition of the fluorosilanes. Afterwards, 0.5 g offluorosilane was blended into the solution in order to maximizehydrophobic character of the rest of the particle. The amount of hexaneadded was largely irrelevant as long as it dissolved the particles. Allsamples had a small amount of water added to the solution (<0.1 g) tocatalyze the reaction (see Table 3 below).

TABLE 3 Control AM01 AM02 AM04 AM05 AM10 5.0 g DE 5.0 g DE 5.0 g DE 5.0g DE 5.0 g DE 5.0 g DE 0.0 g APS 0.1 g APS 0.2 g APS 0.4 g APS 0.5 g APS1.0 g APS 0.5 g FAOS 0.5 g FAOS 0.5 g FAOS 0.5 g FAOS 0.5 g FAOS 0.5 gFAOS 10 g Hex. 17 g Hex. 24 g Hex. 17 g Hex. 20 g Hex. 29 g Hex.

The particles were isolated and dried, then blended into epoxy powder atan 80 weight % epoxy powder to 20 weight % FADE ratio. Coatings weremade similar as discussed hereinabove with a pure bottom coat and an80/20 top coat sprayed onto drywall samples.

The control sample, with diatomaceous earth functionalized solely withthe FAOS and without the aminosilane, was not superhydrophobic and hadno gloss. Visually, the samples with amine had increasing reflectanceand sheen with increasing amine content, similar to a control epoxypowder coat that had no diatomaceous earth. The contact angle ofsuperhydrophobic samples appeared to decrease with additional aminegroups to the particle. The samples also had increasing particleretention and durability with increasing amine content. The AM10 samplehad high gloss, but was not superhydrophobic, indicating amine levelshad overwhelmed the superhydrophobic properties of the particles.

Water contact angles were measured and are listed in Table 4 below. Dueto the angle of the samples, contact angles were measured and an averagewas used to characterize the surface.

TABLE 4 WCA Average Sample WCA Left Right WCA Ctrl 00 142.177 118.072130.1245 AM01 155.014 157.166 156.09 AM02 152.583 152.033 152.308 AM04151.849 151.821 151.835 AM05 150.980 150.803 150.892 AM10 117.848116.259 117.0535

FIGS. 6-11 illustrate images of a water drop contact angle forcharacterizing the hydrophobicity of the epoxy coated surfaces. FIG. 6corresponds to the Ctrl 00 sample, FIG. 7 corresponds to the AM01sample, FIG. 8 corresponds to the AM02 sample, FIG. 9 corresponds to theAM04 sample, FIG. 10 corresponds to the AM05 sample, and FIG. 11corresponds to the AM10 sample.

The mechanism of this transition between matte superhydrophobicity andglossy hydrophobicity is linked to the fact that particles withincreased amine content are able to have a higher concentration ofcovalent bonds to the polymer. The fluorinated particles will naturallynot link to the epoxy functional groups, resulting in a substrate thathas porous surface defects that interfere with optical reflectance.Adding aminosilane allows the epoxy to bond directly to the particle,and increasing the silane content results in more coupling sitesresulting in a uniform coating with increased reflectance properties—andhigher glossiness. Higher covalent bonding content results in increasedmechanical durability, as the particles have more chemical links to thepolymer overall.

In some embodiments, the reactive silane moiety used for couplingmatches the targeted polymer to produce a coating with increaseddurability. For example, FADE AM04 particles (1.0 g) were blended into aPVC cement (2.0 g) and MEK (10 g) solution, a typical superhydrophobiccoating formulation that has low durability. The resulting coating usingthe FADE was superhydrophobic but had very low durability, as particleswould easily be brushed off of the surface.

To identify if the amine sites were reacted, ninhydrin indicatorsolution was applied to this PVC coating as well as to the previous AM04sample. Ninhydrin will turn purple in the presence of —NH and —NH₂groups. The ninhydrin solution was absorbed by both coatings. As shownin FIG. 5, the ninhydrin did not produce a purple reaction with theamino particles in the epoxy coating in the ninhydrin treated area 510of the AM04 coated sample 502, likely due to these particles havingfully reacted with the epoxy resin. The black streaks shown in FIG. 5 atthe ninhydrin treated area 510 resulted from isopropyl alcohol in theninhydrin solution streaking the black Sharpie marker used to designatedthe area 510. The ninhydrin did produce a purple reaction with thefunctionalized diatomaceous earth (AM04) in the PVC cement coateddrywall sample 520 as evidenced by the purples spots 530 (see FIG. 5).In this case, the PVC cement apparently did not react to theseparticular aminosilanes, resulting in a coating that has diatomaceousearth particles that are only bound mechanically in a low durabilitycoating. It is also evident that the chemical reaction did not influencethe superhydrophobicity of the coating.

The above test results further show that altering the amount of aminesilane on the silica particle will influence the characteristics of theresulting coating. Increasing amine content will increase durability,glossiness, and particle retention while remaining superhydrophobic.Overloading the particle with aminosilane results in a coating thatresembles the base epoxy coating in that it is very glossy but notsuperhydrophobic.

Two Roll Mill Trial

In some embodiments, the multifunctional particles are mixed with apolymer as part of a two roll mill trial. The two roll mill trialprovides for increased additive and particle dispersion in the polymerand replicates real-world applications. In some embodiments, the effectof slip agents and/or blooming paths were also investigated.

In the two roll mill trial, various combinations of linear low densitypolyethylene (LLDPE), maleic anhydride, particles according to thepresent disclosure, and slip agents were combined and the resultingwater contact angle measured. Table 5 presents the results of the tworoll mill trial. The water contact angle was determined by melting cutsamples of the resulting polymer on 400° F. heated 304 stainless steelto various stages and then water quenched.

In some embodiments, fumed silica is dual functionalized withN-(6-aminohexyl)-3-aminopropyltrimethoxysilane as a reactive silanemoiety:

and tridecafluoro-1,1,2,2-tetrahydrooctyl)-triethoxysilane as ahydrophobic silane moiety:

TABLE 5 LLDPE Maleic anhydride Particle Slip agent Composition wt %, gwt %, g wt %, g wt %, g WCA LLDPE control 100%  25 0   0 0   0 0 0 90LLDPE-maleic anhydride 95% 25 5% 1.25 0   0 0 0 90 control Aminefunctional 91% 25 5% 1.25 5% 1.25 0 0 130 diatomaceous earth Fluorinated91% 25 5% 1.25 5% 1.25 0 0 90 diatomaceous earth Fluoroamine 91% 25 5%1.25 5% 1.25 0 0 140 diatomaceous earth Fluoroamine fumed 91% 25 5% 1.255% 1.25 0 0 155 silica Fluoroamine 88% 25 4% 1.25 4% 1.25   4% 1 155diatomaceous earth and slip agent High maleic anhydride, 88% 25 9% 2.53% 0.75 0 0 140 low fluoroamine diatomaceous earth High maleicanhydride, 83% 25 8% 2.5 8% 2.5 0 0 140 high fluoroamine diatomaceousearth Fluoroamine fumed 88% 25 4% 1.25 4% 1.25   4% 1 155 silica and lowslip agent Fluoroamine fumed 85% 25 4% 1.25 4% 1.25   7% 2 90 silica andhigh slip agent

In some embodiments, maleic anhydride is used as a coupling agent in thepolymer to increase coupling sites for the reactive silane moieties ofthe particles. For example, the maleic acid Epolene C-26 was included inthe polymer in the two roll mill trial. Any suitable coupling agent maybe used.

In some embodiments, a slip agent is also included in the composition toassist with processing of the polymer in the system. For example, acomposition comprising 80% polypropylene (Americhem), 10% erucamide, and10% oleamide was used in various sample of the two roll mill trial todetermine the effect of the slip agent on hydrophobicity. In someembodiments, the slip agent reduces sheer and slows down cross-linkingthe resulting polymer.

As shown in Table 5, both the control comprising LLDPE and the controlcomprising LLDPE and maleic anhydride did not exhibit superhydrophobiccharacteristics (WCA=90 for both).

Diatomaceous earth (Celtix) coupled to single functional moieties alsodid not exhibit superhydrophobic characteristics. Specifically, theamine-functional diatomaceous earth having the reactive silane moietyhad a water contact angle of 130. The fluorinated diatomaceous earthhaving the hydrophobic silane moiety had a water contact angle of 90.

Dual functional diatomaceous earth having both a reactive silane moietyand a hydrophobic silane moiety (fluoroamine diatomaceous earth)generated a hydrophobic surface when coupled to a polymer. The resultingpolymer had a water contact angle of 140. Dual functional fumed silicahaving both a reactive silane moiety and a hydrophobic silane moiety(fluoroamine fumed silica) generated a superhydrophobic when coupled toa polymer. The resulting polymer had a water contact angle of 155.

The addition of the slip agent did not affect the superhydrophobicnature of the polymer surface generated with the fluoroamine fumedsilica.

The presence of higher concentrations of maleic anhydride in the polymerresulted in hydrophobic surfaces on the polymer in both high and lowconcentrations of fluoroamine diatomaceous earth. Both resultingpolymers had a water contact angle of 140.

The presence of low concentrations of the slip agent in the fluoroaminefumed silica polymer did not affect the water contact angle, whichremained at 155. The presence of a higher concentration of the slipagent in the fluoroamine fumed silica polymer reduced the water contactangle to 90.

As seen from Table 5, dual-functional fumed silica resulted in asuperhydrophobic polymer when mixed with and without low concentrationsof the slip agent. Increasing the concentration of the slip agent in thepolymer eventually reduced the hydrophobic nature of the resultingpolymer. Dual-functional diatomaceous earth also produced asuperhydrophobic polymer when combined with a low concentration of theslip agent.

Durability of Dual Functional Particles

To test the durability of dual functional partices, flouro-amine fumedsilica particles were used in conjunction with Bayhydrol 124 and acetone(coating name V124) to make an HVLP-sprayed superhydrophobic coating ona 4000 series flat steel substrate. This coating was compared to an offthe shelf Rust Oleum 274232 Never Wet Multi Purpose Kit coating system,where the instructions were followed to produce a coating on the same4000 series flat steel substrate. As is shown in the following results,the reactive silane moiety coupled to the polymer and enhanceddurability of the resulting superhydrophobic surface compared to theNeverwet coating system.

As part of the comparison, both coatings were made at the same time andallowed to cure for 24 hours, per instructions. Both coatings weretested with a MIL severe abrasion eraser tester, MIL-E-12397B, with nocheese cloth (only the pumice eraser tip itself). The test was amodified version of MIL-PRF-13830B C.4.5.10 Severe abrasion, using a 1lb abrasion pen. The coatings were abraded for five strokes over thesame wear track, where going from point A to point B was one stroke.

The Neverwet sample fully wet after five strokes (failed) with thesevere abrasion pen. The dual functional fumed silica sample was stillsuperhydrophobic after one hundred strokes. This test showed that thesample using dual functional fumed silica particles was moremechanically durable than a commercially available superhydrophobiccoating.

Imaging of Dual Functional Particles—EDX-SEM

Dual functional diatomaceous earth particles were examined by energydispersive X-ray spectroscopy using scanning electron microscopy(EDX-SEM). The dual functional diatomaceous earth particles were foundto have both fluorine and adhesive groups. For the test, diatomaceousearth particles were functionalized with6-azidosulfonylhexyltriethoxysilane as the reactive silane moiety:

and tridecafluoro-1,1,2,2-tetrahydrooctyl)-triethoxysilane as thehydrophobic silane moiety:

The resulting EDX-SEM scan showed that both fluorine and sulfur groupswere detectable, whereas fluorine-only and sulfur-only control powdersdid not show both of these results at the same time. In addition, theEDX-SEM for diatomaceous earth showed signatures for anticipatedmaterials such as carbon, oxygen, silicon, trace metals magnesium,aluminum, calcium, iron, as well as elemental fluorine and sulfur.

An EDX-SEM scan of a particle with fluoro-amine dual functionality didnot show the presence of the amine or nitrogen. This is likely due tothe low weight and concentration of nitrogen. The presence of aminefunctionality was confirmed on these particles via ninhydrin tests. Thescan also showed carbon, oxygen, fluorine, aluminum, silicon, andcalcium.

Fracture Test Images

A fracture test was performed on the dual functional particles anddemonstrated that the particles have chemical bonding to the polymeritself while maintaining superhydrophobicity (data not shown). Thefracture test was performed by freezing a polymer and then fracturing itby snapping it in half. Chemical adhesion is seen where the polymer isattached to the particles that are exposed on the fracture interface.There is no visible gap between the particle and the polymer and theparticle is fully embedded within the polymer based on a SEM image. Incontrast, the same test performed on unbound particles shows that thereis little to no interaction between the polymer and the additive. Thisis seen as a pocket that forms around the particle or the polymer formsstrands to bridge around the particle rather than attach to it.

Similarly, blooming of dual functional superhydrophobic particles inpolyolefins can be seen by looking at the surface of the polyolefin withSEM. In SEM images of polyolefins coupled to dual functionalsuperhydrophobic particles, the blooming particles are near the surfaceof the olefin and portions of the particle emerge from the polymersurface. The SEM images display charging of the exposed silica material,which shows up as a bright white portion demonstrating the particle in arough surface.

When particles having no blooming functionality (a portion of the silanethat is hydrophilic/polar and incompatible with thehydrophobic/non-polar polyolefin), the particles are fully concealed bythe polymer. This is seen as a generally smooth surface in the SEM.Breaking the surface of the polymer allows the particles to be exposed,but the particles will not emerge without post-processing abrasion orfracturing.

In some embodiments, blooming of dual functional particles through thesurface of the polymer can be enhanced by:

-   -   i) Increasing the amount of polar material on the particle. This        can be done by increasing the loading of hydrophilic/polar        silane on the particle and by using a hydrophilic/polar linker        on one of the silanes on the particle.    -   ii) Using slip agents such as oleamides and erucamides in        concentrations between 1-6 wt %. In testing there was an        increase in superhydrophobicity when using a slip agent at 4 wt        % compared to no slip agent, but further increasing the slip        agent to 7 wt % removed superhydrophobicity. SEM of these        materials showed increased numbers of particles that breach the        polymer-air interface.    -   iii) Heating the material, either in production or        post-processing, can increase the diffusion potential of the        particles within the polymer material.    -   iv) Using ethanolic baths to extract slip agents from polymer        materials. These baths, either heated or unheated, can be used        to promote blooming of particles within the polymer materials.    -   v) Using smaller particles that will diffuse through polymers        easier. This is seen in SEM and results where dual functional        diatomaceous earth particles have partial blooming and high        water contact angle (140 degrees), but dual functional fumed        silica particles used in the same weight % were superhydrophobic        (over 150 degrees with no water adhesion). The dual functional        fumed silica particles are smaller than the dual functional        diatomaceous earth particles.    -   vi) Modifying the polymer-air interface with a sacrificial or        alternative coating. Particles will more easily bloom from a        polyolefin into a polar polymer such as an acrylic or silicone        as opposed to blooming from a polyolefin into air due to the        smaller interfacial tension of olefin:acrylate/silicone than        olefin:air. This can be done, for example, in injection molding,        where the metallic mold is coated with a silicone mold release        agent first, or an acrylic coating is injected prior to the        olefin, which is later dissolved.        Preparation of Compositions that Include Silica Particles and        Acrylonitrile Butadiene Styrene:

Combine and Blend:

-   -   25.7 g MEK    -   1.8 g ABS (acrylonitrile butadiene styrene) Black    -   1.9 g FADE

Blend the above mixture with a magnetic stir bar. Hand dip a glass slideinto the mixture and bake the coated glass slide for several minutes at200° F. In the thin areas of the coating, the coating surface was notsuperhydrophobic, but the coating was superhydrophobic in thicker areas.Increase thickness by immersing the glass slide for about 20 seconds andthen bake the coated glass slide for 2 minutes at 200° F. The coatingwas observed to be durable as only a small amount of powder could berubbed off of the glass surface. The surface was also superhydrophobicafter being rubbed with a gloved hand to visibly remove powder from thesurface. A high pressure jet of water eventually applied to the coatedglass surface eventually wetted the surface.

Modification of the Above Formula:

Add 2 g ABS to remaining 26 g of solution, and repeat the above process.A thick and opaque coating that was applied to the glass was found to bedurable and superhydrophobic with no visible powder removed upon wiping.High pressure water wets surface and water rubbed on surface wets aswell, however, drying the surface restores the durable andsuperhydrophobic properties. Glass sample holds up to rubbing with anungloved finger and maintains near superhydrophobic roll off of 5-10degrees.

Preparations of Asphalt Compositions that Include Silica Particles:

A series of experiments was performed to modify low viscosity asphaltpaint using either an organic solvent-based asphalt or a water-basedasphalt. FIG. 12 illustrates a SEM image of asphalt coating withnon-functionalized diatomaceous earth. The circular objects, for examplethe circular object 1202, represent the particles of diatomaceous earth.As shown in the illustrated embodiment, the coating surface is veryporous with many structure having high aspect ratios. FIG. 13 shows aSEM image of an epoxy-based polymer coating with multifunctionaldiatomaceous earth having a flat, non-porous, continuous surface, whichhas good abrasive durability. Circular objects 1310 of FIG. 13 arediatomaceous earth particles. FIG. 14 shows an SEM image of un-modifiedasphalt.

Method:

Diatomaceous earth functionalized with various fluorinated silanemoieties and/or reactive silane moieties (e.g., amine, methacryloxy,OTS) are dispersed in a toluene solution and blended into the asphaltpaint. The resulting solution is sprayed with a compressed air systemonto surfaces for evaluation. When diatomaceous earth is blendeddirectly into asphalt paint, it acts as a thixotropic agent and theresulting spray coating is generally not superhydrophobic. The coatingcan become superhydrophobic when the solution is diluted with tolueneafter particles have been added, but this is inconsistent. Mostconsistent results are blending in a toluene-diatomaceous earth pasteinto the asphalt.

-   -   1. Dilute 2.5 g multifunctional diatomaceous earth particles in        5.0 g toluene    -   2. Blend the particles and toluene mixture into 2.5 g        solvent-based asphalt in air condition.        -   a. Add catalysts or additives while blending        -   b. If necessary, heat solution within a distillation column    -   3. Spray the mixture onto the surface of a substrate in several        thin coats. Avoid ‘puddling’ the solution or otherwise creating        wet gels in the coating. Final coating thickness is about 2 mils        after air drying.    -   4. Resulting coating is brown and superhydrophobic.    -   5. Different silanes, catalysts, and additives have shown to        have influence on final coating properties, such as ability to        wet over time, abrasive durability, and water pressure        resistance.    -   6. Particle Functionalization: Particles were loaded at a 1:10        weight ratio of total silane to bulk powder silica particles in        hexane with a small amount of water added to the solution.        Silanes were generally assumed to have at least 300 m²/g of        coverage, and the diatomaceous earth particles generally have 30        m²/g of surface area. Particles with two silanes were loaded at        60/40 or 70/30 weight percent ratios of hydrophobic silane        moiety (fluorocarbon) to reactive silane moiety.

Test Results

a) Methacryloxy-functional reactive silane moieties for multifunctionalparticles: these asphalt coatings had the best overall properties whenused with no other additives. The coatings were superhydrophobic and hadhigh durability and high water pressure resistance. Benzoyl peroxide wasused as a catalyst to increase bonding of methacryloxy particles toproduce more robust coating samples with the same magnitude ofdurability.

b) Octadecyl and phenyl functional silanes for multifunctionalparticles: resulted in coating with lower abrasive durability whencompared to the asphalt coating with methacryloxy silanes. Octoadecylbased coating had high durability and water pressure resistance. Phenylbased coating had mediocre durability.

c) Amine-functional reactive silane moieties for multifunctionalparticles: adding ABS (acrylonitrile butadiene styrene) polymer to theasphalt and using amine reactive silane moieties to functionalize thediatomaceous earth generated better test results than methacryloxyasphalts. Amine based coatings had low to mediocre durability with noadditives, but the coating had the highest durability of all additivesonce combined with ABS.

d) Puddling the asphalt spray results in a black or otherwise very darkcoating that is smooth but not superhydrophobic.

e) Plain diatomaceous earth: asphalt becomes superhydrophobic, but haslow durability, low water pressure resistance, and wets over time.

f) Fluorocarbon singly functional diatomaceous earth: The asphaltcoating is superhydrophobic, but water droplets wet within seconds ofsustained contact. Low durability and water pressure resistance.Further, fluorinated powder has decreased miscibility with hydrocarbonsolvents. Particles can be more easily blended with toluene when treatedwith chemically active silanes as well as fluorosilanes. Still further,fluorocarbon is not necessary to produce a superhydrophobic coating.

g) Additives:

-   -   1) Acryl Butadiene Styrene—Increased durability of methacryloxy        and amine asphalt blends. Made amine based coatings the most        durable asphalt coating.    -   2) Benzoyl Peroxide—Used with methacryloxy particles.

Applications

The multifunctional particles can be used to create a mechanicallyrobust superhydrophobic surface when combined with polymer binders. Thisis due to copolymerization of the adhesive chains with monomers,resulting in particles that are mechanically and chemically bound to agiven surface and migrate to the surface. For example, themultifunctional particle may be used in preparing polymer injectionmolding and extrusion products. In one example, adding anti-microbialfunctionality to the multifunctional particle can result in a product,such as a spray paint, that has inherent anti-microbial properties whichwill kill microbes that come in contact with the spray paint even afterit has dried. In another example, the superhydrophobic composition canbe applied as a sealant on surfaces that are prone to water permeabilityand corrosion such as underground PVC pipes, wall board, undergroundbuilding materials, pipe interiors, and power line protective sheaths.The composition can be applied to a biofouling-prone material such asunderwater pier structures. The composition can be applied to enhancewater flow on surfaces such as pipe interiors, boat hulls, surf boards,other general water and snow sports products, gutters, under-deckdraining structures, marine and aviation bilge areas, and consumerproduct bottles.

The composition can be applied to concrete, asphalt roadways/racetracks,composite decking and wooden walking surfaces to prevent the absorptionof water, prevent the formation of ice, and decrease the drying time onthese surfaces. The composition could be applied to Radar radomes toprevent the absorption of water and prevent the formation of ice. Thecomposition can be applied to wood and paper products as a barrier toprevent surfaces from wetting and developing biological growths such asmold and mildew. The composition could be used in a mixture with wateror oil to allow for controlled compressibility of the mixture for use inshock absorbers, pressure sensors, and hydraulic systems. Thecomposition can be applied to heat pump condenser coils to reduce energyconsumption related to coil de-icing. The composition can be applied tocircuit boards and other electronics to prevent electrical shorts due towetting. The composition can be applied to fiberglass and other thermalinsulating materials to prevent wetting and reduced functionality. Thecomposition can be applied to medical and personal hygiene devices toreduce the likelihood of water transferred bacteria and germs.

The reactive silane moieties can be adjusted such that themultifunctional particles can couple to natural and synthetic textiles,which can be used for swim suits, solvent-resistant clothing, andchemical resistant military uniforms or other protective coating. Suchtextiles can be used as durable, robust, and scalable low-surface-energytextile treatments for militarily relevant, synthetic textiles that willprevent absorption and adhesion of fine aerosols and that will shed mostbulk liquids.

While the foregoing disclosure discusses illustrative embodiments, itshould be noted that various changes and modifications could be madeherein without departing from the scope of the described aspects and/orembodiments as defined by the appended claims. Furthermore, althoughelements of the described aspects and/or embodiments may be described orclaimed in the singular, the plural is contemplated unless limitation tothe singular is explicitly stated. Additionally, all or a portion of anyembodiment may be utilized with all or a portion of any otherembodiment, unless stated otherwise.

While certain exemplary embodiments have been described and shown in theaccompanying drawings, it is to be understood that such embodiments aremerely illustrative of and not restrictive on the broad invention, andthat this invention not be limited to the specific constructions andarrangements shown and described, since various other changes,combinations, omissions, modifications and substitutions, in addition tothose set forth in the above paragraphs are possible. Those skilled inthe art will appreciate that various adaptations and modifications ofthe just described embodiments can be configured without departing fromthe scope and spirit of the invention. Therefore, it is to be understoodthat, within the scope of the appended claims, the invention may bepracticed other than as specifically described herein.

What is claimed is:
 1. A particle comprising: a surface; a first moietycoupled to the surface and having at least one substantially hydrophobicappendage; and a second moiety coupled to the surface and having atleast one appendage comprising a reactive functional group and asubstantially hydrophilic repeating unit, whereby the particle is (i)superhydrophobic as a result of the substantially hydrophobic appendage;(ii) chemically reactive as a result of the reactive functional group;and (iii) migratory to a surface of a hydrophobic matrix in which theparticle is included as a result of the substantially hydrophilicrepeating unit.
 2. The particle of claim 1, wherein the particle is ametal particle; a SiO₂-containing particle selected from the groupconsisting of diatomaceous earth, fumed silica, fused silica, and ricehusk ash; or an inorganic particle exclusive of the group ofSiO₂-containing particles.
 3. The particle of claim 1 or claim 2,wherein the first moiety further comprises an anti-microbial functionalgroup.
 4. The particle of claim 1 or claim 2, wherein the particlefurther comprises a third moiety coupled to the surface and having atleast one appendage comprising an anti-microbial functional group. 5.The particle of claim 3 or claim 4, wherein the first moiety is areaction product of the particle with 3-trimethoxy silyl propyl dimethyloctadecyl ammonium chloride.
 6. The particle of claim 1 or claim 2,wherein the hydrophilic repeating unit is oxyethylene.
 7. The particleof claim 1 or claim 2, wherein the hydrophilic repeating unit is betweenthe reactive functional group and the particle.
 8. The particle of claim1 or claim 2, wherein the second moiety is a reaction product of theparticle with a member selected from an amino-functional hydrocarbonalkoxysilanes, N-(6-aminohexyl)-3-aminopropyltrimethoxysilane,aminohexylaminoethyltrimethoxysilane, aminopropyltrimethoxysilane,aminopropyltriethoxysilane,N-(2-Aminoethyl)-3-aminopropyl-trimethoxysilane,methyacryloxypropyl-trimethoxysilane, or combinations thereof.
 9. Theparticle of claim 1 or claim 2, wherein the second moiety comprisesaminosilanes, olefin silanes, anhydride silanes, epoxy silanes, halogensilanes, hydroxyl silanes, dipodal silanes, acrylate silanes,sulfur-containing silanes, isocyanate silanes, or azide silanes.
 10. Theparticle of claim 1 or claim 2, wherein the first moiety comprises areaction product of the particle with a molecule of the structure:X_(y)(CH₃)_((3-y))SiLR; where: y is 1 to 3; X is —Cl, —Br, —I, —H, HO—,R′HN—, R′₂N—, imidizolo, R′C(O)N(H)—, R′C(O)N(R″)—, R′O—, F₃CC(O)N(H)—,F₃CC(O)N(CH₃)—, or F₃S(O)₂O—, where R′ is a straight or branched chainhydrocarbon of 1 to 4 carbons and R″ is methyl or ethyl; L, a linkinggroup, is a radical selected from: —CH₂CH₂—; —CH₂CH₂CH₂—; —CH₂CH₂O—;—CH₂CH₂CH₂O—; —CH₂CH₂C(O)—; —CH₂CH₂CH₂C(O)—; —CH₂CH₂OCH₂—;—CH₂CH₂CH₂OCH₂—; and R is —(CF₂)nCF₃ or —(CF(CF₃)OCF₂)nCF₂CF₃, where nis 0 to
 24. 11. The particle of claim 1 or claim 2, wherein the firstmoiety comprises a reaction product of the particle with1H,1H,2H,2H-perfluorooctyltrichlorosilane.
 12. The particle of claim 1or claim 2, wherein the second moiety a reaction product of the particlewith N-3-[(amino(polypropylenoxy)]aminopropyltrimethoxysilane.
 13. Aparticle comprising: a surface; a first moiety coupled to the surfaceand having at least one substantially hydrophobic appendage and ananti-microbial functional group; and a second moiety coupled to thesurface and having at least one appendage comprising a reactivefunctional group, whereby the particle is: (i) substantiallysuperhydrophobic as a result of the substantially hydrophobic appendage;(ii) chemically reactive as a result of the reactive functional group;and (iii) anti-microbial as a result of the anti-microbial functionalgroup.
 14. The particle of claim 13, wherein the particle is a metalparticle; a SiO₂-containing particle selected from the group consistingof diatomaceous earth, fumed silica, fused silica, and rice husk ash; oran inorganic particle exclusive of the group of SiO₂-containingparticles.
 15. The particle of claim 13 or claim 14, further comprisinga third moiety coupled to the surface and having at least one appendagecomprising a substantially hydrophilic repeating unit.
 16. The particleof claim 14 or claim 15, wherein the first moiety is a reaction productof the particle with 3-trimethoxy silyl propyl dimethyl octadecylammonium chloride.
 17. The particle of claim 13 or claim 14, wherein thesecond moiety comprises a substantially hydrophilic repeating unitpositioned between the reactive functional group and the particle. 18.The particle of claim 17, wherein the hydrophilic repeating unitcomprises is oxyethylene.
 19. The particle of claim 13 or claim 14,wherein the second moiety is a reaction product of the particle with amember selected from the group consisting of amino-functionalhydrocarbon silanes, N-(6-aminohexyl)-3-aminopropyltrimethoxysilane,aminohexylaminoethyltrimethoxysilane, aminopropyltrimethoxysilane,aminopropyltriethoxysilane,N-(2-Aminoethyl)-3-aminopropyl-trimethoxysilane,methyacryloxypropyl-trimethoxysilane, and combinations thereof.
 20. Theparticle of claim 13 or claim 14, wherein the second moiety comprisesamine silanes, olefin silanes, anhydride silanes, epoxy silanes, halogensilanes, hydroxyl silanes, dipodal silanes, acrylate silanes,sulfur-containing silanes, isocyanate silanes, or azide silanes.
 21. Aparticle comprising: a surface of the particle; a first moiety coupledto the surface and having at least one substantially hydrophobicappendage; a second moiety coupled to the surface and having at leastone appendage comprising a reactive functional group; and a third moietycoupled to the surface and having at least one appendage comprising asubstantially hydrophilic repeating unit; whereby the particle issubstantially superhydrophobic as a result of the substantiallyhydrophobic appendage, chemically reactive as a result of the reactivefunctional group, and migratory to a surface of a hydrophobic matrix inwhich the particle is included as a result of the substantiallyhydrophilic repeating unit.
 22. The particle of claim 21, wherein theparticle is a metal particle; a SiO₂-containing particle selected fromthe group consisting of diatomaceous earth, fumed silica, fused silica,and rice husk ash; or an inorganic particle exclusive of the group ofSiO₂-containing particles.
 23. The particle of claim 21 or claim 22,wherein the first moiety comprises an anti-microbial functional group.24. The particle of claim 23, wherein the first moiety is a reactionproduct of the particle with 3-trimethoxy silyl propyl dimethyloctadecyl ammonium chloride.
 25. The particle of claim 21 or claim 22,wherein the substantially hydrophilic repeating unit is oxyethylene. 26.The particle of claim 21 or claim 22, wherein the second moiety is areaction product of the particle with a member selected from the groupconsisting of amino-functional hydrocarbon silanes,N-(6-aminohexyl)-3-aminopropyltrimethoxysilane,aminohexylaminoethyltrimethoxysilane, aminopropyltrimethoxysilane,aminopropyltriethoxysilane,N-(2-Aminoethyl)-3-aminopropyl-trimethoxysilane,methyacryloxypropyl-trimethoxysilane, and combinations thereof.
 27. Theparticle of claim 21 or claim 22, wherein the second moiety comprisesamine silanes, olefin silanes, anhydride silanes, epoxy silanes, halogensilanes, hydroxyl silanes, dipodal silanes, acrylate silanes,sulfur-containing silanes, isocyanate silanes, or azide silanes.
 28. Theparticle of claim 21 or claim 22, wherein the first moiety comprises amolecule of the structure:X_(y)(CH₃)_((3-y))SiLR where y is 1 to 3; X is —CI, —Br, —I, —H, HO—,R′HN—, R′₂N—, imidizolo, R′C(O)N(H)—, R′C(O)N(R″)—, R′O—, F₃CC(O)N(H)—,F₃CC(O)N(CH₃)—, or F₃S(O)₂O—, where R′ is a straight or branched chainhydrocarbon of 1 to 4 carbons and R″ is methyl or ethyl; L, a linkinggroup, is a radical selected from: —CH₂CH₂—; —CH₂CH₂CH₂—; —CH₂CH₂O—;—CH₂CH₂CH₂O—; —CH₂CH₂C(O)—; —CH₂CH₂CH₂C(O)—; —CH₂CH₂OCH₂—;—CH₂CH₂CH₂OCH₂—; and R is —(CF₂)nCF₃ or —(CF(CF₃)OCF₂)nCF₂CF₃, where nis 0 to
 24. 29. The particle of claim 21 or claim 22, wherein the firstmoiety is a reaction product of the particle with1H,1H,2H,2H-perfluorooctyltrichlorosilane.
 30. A composition comprising:a substantially hydrophobic polymer; and multifunctional particlesdispersed or distributed in the substantially hydrophobic polymer, atleast a portion of the multifunctional particles comprising: a firstmoiety coupled to a surface of the multifunctional particle, the firstmoiety comprising at least one substantially hydrophobic appendage; anda second moiety coupled to the surface of the multifunctional particle,the second moiety comprising at least one appendage comprising areactive functional group and a substantially hydrophilic repeatingunit, whereby the multifunctional particle is (i) substantiallysuperhydrophobic as a result of the substantially hydrophobic appendage;(ii) chemically reactive as a result of the reactive functional group;and (iii) migratory to an air-exposed surface of the substantiallyhydrophobic polymer as a result of the substantially hydrophilicrepeating unit.
 31. The composition of claim 30, wherein thesubstantially hydrophobic polymer is selected from thermosets,acrylates, methacrylates, polyesters, urethanes, epoxies, phenolics,thermoplastics, polydienes, polyvinyl chloride, polyphenylene sulfide,acrylics, maleic anhydride, vinyl acetate, diene-containing copolymers,halogen-modified homopolymers, chlorosulfonyl-modified homopolymers,polyamides, polyesters, polycarbonates, polysulfones, olefins, andcombinations thereof.
 32. The composition of claim 30 or claim 31,wherein the substantially hydrophobic polymer is polymerized or thepolymer comprises at least two precursor components copolymerized withthe multifunctional particles.
 33. An article comprising: asubstantially hydrophobic polymer; and multifunctional particlespresented on an air-surface interface of an article, the multifunctionalparticles comprising: at least one first moiety comprising at least onesubstantially hydrophobic appendage; at least one second moietycomprising at least one appendage having a reactive functional group;and at least one third moiety comprising at least one appendage having asubstantially hydrophilic repeating unit.
 34. The article of claim 33,wherein the substantially hydrophobic polymer is selected fromthermosets, acrylates, methacrylates, polyesters, urethanes, epoxies,phenolics, thermoplastics, polydienes, polyvinyl chloride, polyphenylenesulfide, acrylics, maleic anhydride, vinyl acetate, diene-containingcopolymers, halogen-modified homopolymers, chlorosulfonyl-modifiedhomopolymers, polyamides, polyesters, polycarbonates, polysulfones,olefins, and combinations thereof.
 35. The article of claim 33 or claim34, wherein the substantially hydrophobic polymer is at least twoprecursor components copolymerized with the multifunctional particles.